The Guide to the Scriptures into a single file

BIBLE DICTIONARY

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y Z

This dictionary has been designed to provide teachers and students with a concise collection of definitions and explanations of items that are mentioned in or are otherwise associated with the Bible. It is based primarily upon the biblical text, supplemented by information from the other books of scripture accepted as standard works by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. It is not intended as an official or revealed endorsement by the Church of the doctrinal, historical, cultural, and other matters set forth. Many of the items have been drawn from the best available scholarship of the world and are subject to reevaluation based on new research and discoveries or on new revelation. The topics have been carefully selected and are treated briefly. If an elaborate discussion is desired, the student should consult a more exhaustive dictionary.

In addition to names of persons and places mentioned in the Bible, there are articles that may be regarded as introductory to the study of scripture, such as Bible, canon, revelation, and certain cultural items. A short account is given of each of the books of the Bible. An attempt has been made to deal with a few doctrinal subjects, such as atonement, baptism, Holy Spirit, priesthood, restoration, and resurrection. Chronology and various matters connected with Bible antiquities have also received attention.

Aaron. Son of Amram and Jochebed, of the tribe of Levi (Ex. 6:16–20); elder brother of Moses (Ex. 7:7). He was appointed by the Lord to assist Moses in bringing the children of Israel out of Egypt and to be his spokesman (Ex. 4:10–16, 27–31; 5:1—12:50). He was with Moses until the fortieth year of the wanderings. At Sinai he was one of those who accompanied Moses up the mountain and saw the Lord (Ex. 19:24; 24:1, 9–11). When Moses and Joshua were called up into the mount to commune with God, Aaron and Hur were appointed judges during their absence (Ex. 24:14, 18); it was then that Aaron made the golden calf at the people's request (Ex. 32:1–6, 21, 24, 35). On Mount Sinai Moses received directions about the appointment of Aaron and his four sons, Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar, to a priesthood that is known as the Aaronic Priesthood (Ex. 28:1–4; 29; D&C 84:18, 26–27). On the completion of the tabernacle Moses consecrated them to their office (Lev. 8:9–13). Aaron died on Mount Hor at the age of 123 (Num. 20:22–29; 33:38–39). For additional items see Ex. 16:2–10, 33–34; 18:12.

Aaronic Priesthood. As a result of the failure of the Israelites to observe the gospel law administered by Moses under the authority of the Melchizedek Priesthood, the Lord gave an additional law of performances and ordinances to administer it. This priesthood was of lesser power and authority than the priesthood of Melchizedek, and was used to administer the outward ordinances, particularly as characterized by the ceremonies of the law of Moses. The terms Aaronic and Levitical are sometimes used synonymously, although there are some specific differences in the offices existing within the Levitical Priesthood. For example, the lesser priesthood was conferred only upon men of the tribe of Levi. However, within the tribe, only Aaron and his sons could hold the office of priest. And, still further, from the firstborn of Aaron's sons (after Aaron) was selected the high priest (or president of the priests). Thus Aaron and his sons after him had greater offices in the Levitical Priesthood than did the other Levites.

The privileges of the priests were greater than those who functioned in the other Levitical offices, and a distinction between the two is evident when the scripture speaks of them as "the priests and the Levites" (1 Kgs. 8:4; Ezra 2:70; John 1:19). The priests could offer sacrifices for the people, burn incense on the altar, and teach the law, whereas the other Levites were employed in more menial tasks, such as the housekeeping of the tabernacle, keeping oil in the lamps, transporting the Ark of the Covenant, taking down and setting up the tabernacle when moving, and related tasks in assisting the priests (Num. 3:5–10; 18:1–7; 1 Chr. 23:27–32). The account of Korah's rebellion against Moses and Aaron delineates some of the differences between the duties of the priests and those of the Levites. It also shows the error of aspiring to offices in the priesthood. Levite companions sought for the high priesthood, but as they were unworthy, the Lord destroyed them (Num. 16–18).

The Aaronic (or Levitical) Priesthood thus functioned only within the tribe of Levi, and the right to have it conferred upon one was determined by lineage and worthiness. As part of his rationale that the law of Moses was fulfilled, Paul makes a point of the contrast between the lineal requirement of the lesser priesthood and the nonlineal Melchizedek Priesthood, which was not confined to those of one tribe (see Heb. 7:11–14). The lineal restrictions of that Aaronic (Levitical) Priesthood were lifted when the law of Moses was fulfilled, and thereafter the offices of the priesthood were conferred upon worthy men without limitation to the tribe of Levi. This appears to be the case in the Church as recorded in the New Testament.

See also Aaron.

Ab. A designation in Hebrew meaning father, as in Abraham, the father of a multitude; Abner, father of Ner; Absalom, father of peace; and so forth. See also Bar; Ben.

Abaddon. A Hebrew word found in the Wisdom literature of the Old Testament denoting the place of the lost (Job 26:6; Prov. 15:11; 27:20), which the King James Version translates as destruction. In Rev. 9:11 it is used as a name of the devil. See also Apollyon.

Abarim. The mountains from which Moses viewed the Promised Land (Num. 27:12; 33:47; Deut. 32:49).

Abba. A personal, familial term for father as used in Hebrew. It is Aramaic for father, and in Talmudic times was used as a title of honor. It was used in the language of Jesus and the apostles, and later by Greek-speaking Christians, as an intimate name for the Father in Heaven. See Mark 14:36; Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6.

Abed-nego. Servant of Nego (or Nebo). One of three saved in the fiery furnace (Dan. 3:12–30). See also Azariah.

Abel. A son of Adam and Eve; a shepherd who offered to God a more excellent sacrifice than Cain (Gen. 4:4; Heb. 11:4), and was killed by him out of jealousy and because Cain lusted after his flocks. Abel's sacrifice was accepted of the Lord because he was authorized by revelation to make the offering; and he performed it in faith, in the proper manner, by the proper authority, and for the proper reasons, his sacrifice being a type or symbol of the Redeemer (Heb. 11:4).

Abiathar. Father of excellence, or plenty. A son of the high priest Ahijah or Ahimelech, he escapes Saul (1 Sam. 22:20); abides with David (23: 6, 9; 30:7); brings the ark back to Jerusalem (2 Sam. 15:24–36; 17:15; 19:11); takes part in Adonijah's rebellion (1 Kgs. 1:7); is thrust out from the priesthood (2:27, 35; Mark 2:26). Ahimelech and Abiathar are probably interchanged in 2 Sam. 8:17; 1 Chr. 18:16; 24:3, 31. See also 2 Sam. 20:25.

Abib. A green head of grain. The name of the harvest month (Ex. 13:4; 23:15; 34:18; Deut. 16:1). After the Captivity it was known as Nisan (Neh. 2:1). See also Calendar.

Abigail. Father of rejoicing. (1) Wife of Nabal (1 Sam. 25:3); became David's wife (25:42; 27:3; 30:5; 2 Sam. 2:2); mother of Chileab (2 Sam. 3:3), or Daniel (1 Chr. 3:1). (2) Sister of David (1 Chr. 2:16).

Abihu. Father (is) he (God). Son of Aaron (Ex. 6:23; 24:1, 9; 28:1). Offered strange fire and died (Lev. 10:1; Num. 3:2, 4; 26:60–61; 1 Chr. 6:3; 24:1–2).

Abilene. A district near Lebanon (Luke 3:1).

Abimelech. Father-king. (1) King of Gerar; takes Sarah (Gen. 20:2); warned in a dream, reproves Abraham for denying her, and is healed (20:3–18; 21:22–32). (2) Reproves Isaac for denying his wife (26:7–11); makes covenant with Isaac (26:16, 26–33). (1) and (2) are possibly the same person, an early tradition having been preserved in two different forms. (3) Son of Gideon (Judg. 8:31); murders his brethren and is made king (9:1–6); overcomes conspiracy and sows Shechem with salt (9:22–49); slain by a millstone (9:50–55; 2 Sam. 11:21). (4) 1 Chr. 18:16, see Abiathar. (5) In title of Ps. 34 same as Achish (1 Sam. 21:11).

Abinadab. Noble father. (1) Ark rests in house of Abinadab at Kirjath-jearim 20 years (1 Sam. 7:1; 2 Sam. 6:3; 1 Chr. 13:7). (2) Second son of Jesse (1 Sam. 16:8; 17:13). (3) Son of Saul (1 Sam. 31:2; 1 Chr. 10:2). (4) 1 Kgs. 4:11.

Abner. Father of Ner, or light. Captain of Saul's army (1 Sam. 14:50; 17:55; 20:25; 26:5–15); makes Ishbosheth king (2 Sam. 2:8–9); defeated by Joab, slays Asahel (2:12–32); revolts to David (3:6–21); killed by Joab (3:27); David's lament over Abner (3:33; 4:1, 12; 1 Kgs. 2:5, 32; 1 Chr. 26:28; 27:21).

Abomination. An object that excites loathing (Prov. 12:22); hence an idol (2 Kgs. 23:13; Isa. 44:19). The word is also used to denote any heathen or immoral practice (Deut. 18:9, 12; 20:18); also the flesh of prohibited animals (Lev. 11:10–13), etc.

Abomination of Desolation. Daniel spoke prophetically of a day when there would be "the abomination that maketh desolate" (Dan. 11:31; 12:11), and the phrase was recoined in New Testament times to say "the abomination of desolation, spoken of by Daniel the prophet" (Matt. 24:15).

Conditions of desolation, born of abomination and wickedness, were to occur twice in fulfillment of Daniel's words. The first was to be when the Roman legions under Titus, in A.D. 70, laid siege to Jerusalem (Matt. 24:15).

Abraham. Father of a multitude. Originally called Abram, exalted father (Gen. 11:26, 17:5). Son of Terah, born in Ur of the Chaldees (Gen. 11:26–28). The migration to Haran, where Terah died, is found in Gen. 11:31. Abraham's journey to Canaan, the divine call, and the covenant are recorded in Gen. 12:1–5. His sojourn in Egypt is given in Gen. 11–20 and Abr. 1—3. Other important events: settlement in Hebron (Gen. 13:18); rescue of Lot and the meeting with Melchizedek (Gen. 14); further blessings and promises (Gen. 15:1; 17:8); institution of circumcision and change of name to Abraham (Gen. 17:9–27); intercession for Lot at Sodom (Gen. 19); offering of Isaac and renewal of the covenant and blessings (Gen. 22); death of Sarah and purchase of the cave of Machpelah as a family burial place (Gen. 23); Abraham's death and burial (Gen. 25:8–10).

Abraham is always regarded in the O.T. as founder of the covenant race, which is personified in the house of Israel. He is the "father of the faithful." John the Baptist and Paul rebuked those holding the erroneous idea that natural descent from Abraham was by itself sufficient to secure God's favor (Matt. 3:9; Rom. 9:7). For references to him in Jesus' teachings see Matt. 8:11; Luke 16:22; John 8:56.

Abraham, Covenant of. Abraham first received the gospel by baptism (which is the covenant of salvation). Then he had conferred upon him the higher priesthood, and he entered into celestial marriage (which is the covenant of exaltation), gaining assurance thereby that he would have eternal increase. Finally he received a promise that all of these blessings would be offered to all of his mortal posterity (D&C 132:29–50; Abr. 2:6–11). Included in the divine promises to Abraham were the assurances that (1) Christ would come through his lineage, and that (2) Abraham's posterity would receive certain lands as an eternal inheritance (Gen. 17; 22:15–18; Gal. 3; Abr. 2). These promises taken together are called the Abrahamic covenant. It was renewed with Isaac (Gen. 26:1–4, 24) and again with Jacob (Gen. 28; 35:9–13; 48:3–4).

The portions of the covenant that pertain to personal salvation and eternal increase are renewed with each individual who receives the ordinance of celestial marriage (see D&C 132:29–33). Those of non-Israelite lineage, commonly known as gentiles, are adopted into the house of Israel, and become heirs of the covenant and the seed of Abraham, through the ordinances of the gospel (Gal. 3:26–29).

Being an heir to the Abrahamic covenant does not make one a "chosen person" per se, but does signify that such are chosen to responsibly carry the gospel to all the peoples of the earth. Abraham's seed have carried out the missionary activity in all the nations since Abraham's day. (Matt. 3:9; Abr. 2:9–11).

To fulfill the covenant God made with Abraham—having particular reference to the fact that the literal seed of his body would be entitled to all of the blessings of the gospel (Abr. 2:10–11)—a number of specific and particular things must take place in the last days. The gospel must be restored, the priesthood must be conferred again upon man, the keys of the sealing power must be given again to mortals, Israel must be gathered, and the Holy Ghost must be poured out upon the gentiles. All this has already taken place or is in process of fulfillment. See also Adoption; Gentiles.

Abraham's Bosom. A term used to denote the place of the righteous dead, Luke 16:22–23. It connotes the harmony that exists among the righteous in paradise, as they await the resurrection.

Absalom. Father of peace. Third son of David (2 Sam. 3:3); kills his brother Amnon (13:20–39; 14:21–33); conspires against David, who flees from Jerusalem (chs. 15—17); hanging in the oak, is slain by Joab (18:9–17); David wept for Absalom (18:33; 19:1–6, 9, 10; 20:6; 1 Kgs. 1:6; 2:7, 28; 1 Chr. 3:2; 2 Chr. 11; 20; Ps. 3, title).

Accho. Judg. 1:31, same as Ptolemais, Acts 21:7.

Accursed. O.T. Devoted. Things forbidden to the people individually, but to be used for the benefit of the whole congregation or for sacrifice (Josh. 6:17; 7:1, 11, 15). N.T. Condemned. Gal. 1:8.

Aceldama. Field of blood. The popular name for the field bought with the money returned to the chief priests by Judas (Matt. 27:3–10). From Acts 1:18–19 it appears to have been so called as being the scene of his death. It was afterwards used as a buryingplace for "strangers," i.e., Jews of the dispersion and proselytes.

Achaia. In N.T. times, a Roman Province forming the southern part of Greece. Acts 18:12, 27; 19:21; Rom. 15:26; 16:5; 1 Cor. 16:15; 2 Cor. 1:1; 9:2; 11:10; 1 Thes. 1:7–8.

Achan. A man of the tribe of Judah who seized and attempted to hide the spoils from the battle of Jericho, against the counsel of Joshua. His disobedience resulted in Israel's defeat at Ai. His transgression was detected through revelation to Joshua, and he was stoned to death. Josh. 7; 22:20.

Achish. King of Gath, receives David kindly, 1 Sam. 21:10; 27; 28:1; 29:3–10; 1 Kgs. 2:40; called Abimelech, Ps. 34 (title).

Acts of the Apostles. This book, as stated in its opening words, is the second of a two-part work written to Theophilus. The first part is known to us as the book of Luke. The early part of Acts records some of the major missionary activities of the Twelve Apostles under the direction of Peter during the time immediately following the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The last half of the book outlines some of the travels and missionary work of Paul. It is evident that the book of Acts is not intended to be a comprehensive history of the early Church, but is mainly a recitation of the early missionary efforts and the important opening of missionary activity to peoples other than the Jews. A brief outline of the book is foreshadowed by Jesus' words in Acts 1:8, "Ye shall be witnesses unto me both in Jerusalem (chs. 1—5), and in all Judaea, and in Samaria (chs. 6—9), and unto the uttermost part of the earth (chs. 10—28)."

1. "In Jerusalem." After an introduction containing an account of the Ascension (1:10–14) and the calling of Matthias to the Quorum of the Twelve (1:15–26), missionary work in Jerusalem goes forth with the outpouring of the Spirit on the day of Pentecost (2:1–13) and with Peter's bold declaration of the divinity of Jesus Christ and his literal bodily resurrection from the grave. In consequence of Peter's preaching on this occasion three thousand persons were added to the Church by baptism (2:37–47).

We are shown how on two critical occasions the Sanhedrin refused to accept the testimony of the Brethren. The first occasion arose out of the arrest of Peter and John for preaching in the temple after healing the lame man (3:1—4:4). The second occasion was in consequence of the large number of converts coming into the Church (ch. 5) and resulted in a formal rejection of the apostolic doctrines (5:17–42).

2. "In all Judaea and in Samaria." This is recorded in three stages. First we are told of the preaching of Stephen and that his martyrdom caused a dispersion of Church members throughout Judaea and Samaria (6:8—8:2). Specific mention is made that one of the seven chosen to help with the affairs of the Church was a proselyte from Antioch. This designation means that he was probably of gentile lineage and was converted to Judaism before he joined the Christian Church. Then is recorded the work of Philip, and of Peter and John in preaching the gospel in Samaria (a people who are not Jews, although partly of Israelite origin) (8:4–40) and also the baptism of the Ethiopian eunuch (8:26–40) (probably a non-Israelite by lineage, but previously converted to Judaism before being baptized by Philip). All of this shows the gradual outreach of the Church: first to Jews, then to non-Jewish Israelites, and then to non-Israelite persons previously converted to Judaism. Then is given an account of the conversion of Saul of Tarsus and his early preaching, first at Damascus and then in Jerusalem (9:1–31). The coming of Saul into the Church presages the remaining portion of the book of Acts.

3. "Unto the uttermost part of the earth." This portion also falls into three phases. The first (9:32—11:26) contains the opening of the door for the worldwide extension of the gospel. This was done by the baptism of Cornelius (10:1—11:18) at Caesarea, and also the establishment of the Church in Antioch (11:19–26). Both of these events were among non-Israelite people. Cornelius' entry into the Church inaugurates a new era because he is the first non-Israelite of whom we have record who entered into the Church without first having been converted to Judaism. The second phase (11:17—15:35) describes the continued activity of the Church at Antioch (consisting primarily of gentile members) and of the work there of Barnabas and Saul. The third phase (15:36—28:31) contains an account of the missionary activity of Paul (Saul), being an account of his travels through Asia Minor and Europe, by which he introduced the gospel of Jesus Christ to Jew and gentile, and especially to the gentile.

Although the book of Acts tells us of the preaching of only a few of the original members of the Twelve (namely Peter, James, and John) we conclude that the other apostles were also actively bearing testimony of Jesus Christ and establishing the Church in whatever lands they could reach. Perhaps they visited in the areas east, north, and south of Palestine. People from such areas are mentioned as having been present on the day of Pentecost (Medes, Elamites, Mesopotamia, Cappadocia, Egypt, and Arabia, Acts 2:9–11), and it is probable that the gospel was first carried into these lands by these people returning from the feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem, and was formally established by the leaders of the Church in the ensuing years.

Adam. The name Adam is given to the first man of the human family on this earth as cited in the account of the creation in the books of Genesis, Moses, and Abraham, and in many instances in the New Testament, Book of Mormon, and Doctrine and Covenants. From these scriptures we learn that Adam is the father and patriarch of the human race on the earth. The aggregate of the scriptures certifies that his transgression in the garden of Eden, although designated as a "fall," was necessary to the advancement and spiritual progress of humanity on this earth, and Adam rightly should be honored, not denigrated. Adam is the Ancient of Days and is also known as Michael. He is the archangel and will come again to the earth in power and glory as the patriarch of the human family, preparatory to the second coming of Jesus Christ (Dan. 7:9–14; D&C 116; HC 3:385–87; 4:207–8).

From latter-day revelation we learn that Adam had a pure and perfect language that was both written and spoken (Moses 6:5–6); that he was taught the gospel of Jesus Christ (Moses 6:51–63); that he was baptized in water and received the Holy Ghost (Moses 6:64–68); and that he was visited personally by the Lord (D&C 107:55–56). Other references to Adam include Luke 3:38; Rom. 5:12–21; 1 Cor. 11:9; 15:20–22, 45–49; 1 Tim. 2:13; 2 Ne. 2:20–26; Mosiah 3:11, 16; D&C 29:34–44; 107:41–57; Moses 2–6. See also Eve; Fall of Adam.

Adar. (1) Josh. 15:3; same as Hazar-addar (Num. 34:4). (2) The twelfth month (Esth. 3:7). See also Calendar.

Admiration. Wonder, astonishment, or amazement, with no implication of esteem or approval (Rev. 17:6; Jude 1:16; cf. 2 Thes. 1:10).

Adonijah. The Lord [Jehovah] is my Lord. (1) Fourth son of David (2 Sam. 3:4); usurps the kingdom, pardoned, afterwards slain (1 Kgs. 1:5–53; 2:13–28; 1 Chr. 3:2). (2) 2 Chr. 17:8. (3) Neh. 10:16.

Adoniram. My Lord is exalted (sometimes abbreviated into Adoram). The officer "over the levy," i.e., who superintended the forced labor employed in public works during the reigns of David, Solomon, Rehoboam (2 Sam. 20:24; 1 Kgs. 4:6; 5:14; 12:18); death of, by stoning (2 Chr. 10:18, where he is called Hadoram).

Adoni-zedek. Lord of righteousness. King of Jerusalem (Josh. 10:1); one of the five kings who war against Gibeon (10:3–5); put to death (10:22–27).

Adoption. There are two types of adoption spoken of in the scriptures. A person who is of non-Israelite lineage becomes a member of the house of Israel through faith in Jesus Christ when it is accompanied by baptism in water and the reception of the Holy Ghost. In addition, all candidates for the fulness of salvation are accounted as sons and daughters of Jesus Christ, being his children by obedience to the gospel (Mosiah 5:7–8). Although the word adoption is not actually used by John the Baptist, he taught the concept as recorded in Matt. 3:9 and Luke 3:8 (compare JST). See also Rom. 8:15–17; Gal. 4:5–7; Eph. 1:5; Abr. 2:10.

Adrammelech. Splendor of the king, or fire-king. (1) Name of an idol, probably representing the sun (2 Kgs. 17:31). (2) Son of Sennacherib (2 Kgs. 19:37; Isa. 37:38).

Adultery. The unlawful association of men and women. Although generally having reference to illicit activity of married persons, the scripture often does not distinguish between the married and the unmarried. While adultery is usually spoken of in the individual sense, it is sometimes used to illustrate the apostasy of a nation or a whole people from the ways of the Lord, such as Israel forsaking her God and going after strange gods and strange practices (Ex. 20:14; Jer. 3:7–10; Matt. 5:27–32; Luke 18:11; D&C 43:24–25). Severe penalties were given in the O.T. for adultery (Lev. 20:10); and unrepentant adulterers will suffer the judgments of God in the world to come (Heb. 13:4; Rev. 18:3–18; D&C 76:103).

Adummim, the going up of, or to. The steep pass on the road from Jericho to Jerusalem (Josh. 15:7; 18:17).

Advocate. One who pleads another's cause. Jesus Christ is the Advocate with the Father, on behalf of the righteous (1 Jn. 2:1; Moro. 7:28; D&C 45:3–5; 110:4). See also Atonement; Christ.

Aeneas. Healed by Peter at Lydda (Acts 9:33).

Aenon. Springs. A place where John performed baptisms (John 3:23). Its site is uncertain, but its selection because there "was much water there" emphasizes baptism by immersion.

Agabus. A prophet who foretold a famine (Acts 11:28) and Paul's imprisonment (21:10).

Agag. An Amalekite king spared by Saul and killed by Samuel (1 Sam. 15:8–23); the name was perhaps a title (like Pharaoh among the Egyptians); see Num. 24:7.

Agriculture. First mentioned in Gen. 4:2; some laws pertaining to it are found in Lev. 19:9–10, 19; 23:10–14, 22; 25:3–7, 11, 18–22; Deut. 24:19–22; 25:4; 26. Cultivation of the vine and olive, two of the most important products of Palestine, necessarily implies a settled life, and could not be practiced by wandering tribes. In addition to the vine and olive, various kinds of cereal grains were extensively cultivated. The ploughshare and the pruninghook together represent agriculture (Isa. 2:4; Joel 3:10). Among other implements of husbandry mentioned are the sickle, the threshing instrument, the winnowing shovel, and the winnowing fork. Grain was either simply parched (Ruth 2:14), pounded in a mortar (Prov. 27:22), or ground in a handmill made of two slabs of stone that were placed one upon another. The work of grinding was usually performed by slaves, often by female slaves, and hence came to be regarded as degrading (Judg. 16:21; Lam. 5:13). Thus Isaiah, addressing Babylon, bids her descend from the throne and grind meal (Isa. 47:2). Mention is also made of millstones (Matt. 18:6); large and heavy, they were turned by the use of animals. See also Rain.

Agrippa. Listens to Paul at Caesarea (Acts 25:13—26:32). Son of Herod Agrippa I and brother of Bernice and Drusilla. See also Herod.

Ahab. (1) Son of Omri, and the most wicked and most powerful of the kings of northern Israel; he married Jezebel, a Sidonian princess, through whose influence the worship of Baal and Asherah was established in Israel (1 Kgs. 16:32–33; 2 Kgs. 3:2); and an attempt was made to exterminate the prophets and the worship of Jehovah (1 Kgs. 18:13). We have another instance of Jezebel's evil influence over Ahab in the story of Naboth (1 Kgs. 21). During Ahab's reign the kingdom of Israel was politically strong. After a struggle with Benhadad, king of Syria, in which Ahab was successful (1 Kgs. 20), Israel and Syria made an alliance for the purpose of opposing Assyria. We learn from Assyrian inscriptions that the united forces were defeated by Shalmaneser II, and Ahab then made an alliance with Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, against Syria, and was killed while attempting to capture Ramoth-gilead (1 Kgs. 22; 2 Chr. 18). (2) A lying prophet (Jer. 29:21).

Ahasuerus. O.T. name of one Median and two Persian kings. (1) Dan. 9:1, father of "Darius the Mede." (2) Ezra 4:6; probably the same as (3) Esth. 1:1, etc., where Ahasuerus is certainly to be identified with Xerxes.

Ahaz. Possessor. King of Judah (2 Kgs. 16; 2 Chr. 28); makes an alliance with Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, in order to repel an attack from Syria and Israel; copies heathen altar (2 Kgs. 16:10); Isaiah's message to (Isa. 7); dial of Ahaz (2 Kgs. 20:11; 23:12).

Ahaziah. The Lord upholds. (1) King of Israel; the chief events of his reign were his joint maritime expedition with Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. 20:35–37) and the revolt of Moab (see Moabite Stone) (2 Kgs. 1:2; 3:4–5; see also 1 Kgs. 22:40, 49–53; 2 Kgs. 1). (2) King of Judah; joined Jehoram, king of Israel, in his attempt to recover Ramoth-gilead; was wounded in Samaria; and died at Megiddo (2 Kgs. 8:25–29; 9:16–29; 10:13; 12:18; 1 Chr. 3:11; 2 Chr. 22:1–11); called Azariah (2 Chr. 22:6), and Jehoahaz (2 Chr. 21:17).

Ahijah. A Shilonite who prophesied to Jeroboam of the rending of the kingdom of Israel into ten tribes and two tribes (1 Kgs. 11:29–39; 12:15). Also prophesied of the Lord's judgment upon Jeroboam for wickedness (1 Kgs. 14:1–18; 15:29; 2 Chr. 9:29).

Ahimaaz. Brother of anger. (1) 1 Sam. 14:50. (2) Son of Zadok (2 Sam. 15:27, 36); sent secretly to David, hidden in a well (17:17–21; 18:19–29; 1 Chr. 6:8–9, 53). (3) 1 Kgs. 4:15.

Ahimelech. Brother-king. (1) Gives David hallowed bread (1 Sam. 21:1–9); slain by Saul (22:9–20; 23:6; 30:7; Ps. 52, title). (2) 2 Sam. 8:17; 1 Chr. 24:3, 6, 31. See also Abiathar.

Ahinoam. Brother of grace. (1) 1 Sam. 14:50. (2) Wife of David and mother of Amnon (1 Sam. 25:43; 27:3; 30:5; 2 Sam. 2:2; 3:2; 1 Chr. 3:1).

Ahithophel. Brother of folly (2 Sam. 15:12, 31, 34). His counsel overthrown by Hushai, he hangs himself (16:15—17:23). Grandfather of Bathsheba (cf. 23:34 and 11:3; 1 Chr. 27:33–34).

Aholiab. A man of the tribe of Dan, to whom the Lord gave wisdom to construct the tabernacle (Ex. 31:6; 35:34; 36:1–2; 38:23).

Ai and Hai. The heap of ruins. Two miles southeast of Bethel (Gen 12:8; 13:3); Israel smitten at Ai (Josh. 7); taken by stratagem (8—9:3; 10:1–2; 12:9; Ezra 2:28; Neh. 7:32).

Ajalon, valley of. Runs from Jerusalem westward toward the Mediterranean; associated with the sun and moon standing still, as in Josh. 10:12–14.

Alexander. (1) Son of Simon of Cyrene and brother of Rufus (Mark 15:21). (2) Acts 4:6; otherwise unknown. (3) Acts 19:33. (4) 1 Tim. 1:20. (5) 2 Tim. 4:14. The last three are all connected with Ephesus.

Alexander. King of Macedon, surnamed THE GREAT; born 356 B.C., died 323 B.C. He made himself ruler over a wide empire stretching from Greece to the Indus, including Syria and Egypt. Josephus records a meeting between him and the high priest Jaddua (Neh. 12:11, 22). This story is that Alexander was marching against Jerusalem when the high priest came to meet him in his robes of hyacinth and gold, and accompanied by a train of priests and citizens arrayed in white. Alexander was so moved by the solemn spectacle that he did reverence to the high priest, visited Jerusalem and conferred important privileges on the Jews.

Alexandria. The Greek capital of Egypt founded 332 B.C. by Alexander the Great. It soon became an important center of commerce and learning; its library was the largest in the world. Jews settled here in large numbers, and it was for their use that the Greek translation of the O.T. was made. (See Septuagint.) Alexandria was the meetingplace of Jewish religious belief and Greek philosophy. We see some of the results of this meeting in the book of the Wisdom of Solomon (see Apocrypha), possibly written in Greek by a Jew in Alexandria about the beginning of the Christian era. Philo, an eminent Jewish philosopher, lived at Alexandria, 20 B.C.-A.D. 50.

Algum. = Almug.

Alleluia, Hallelujah. Praise ye the Lord (Rev. 19:1–6; cf. Ps. 105:45 and 106–150).

Almond tree. In full blossom in Palestine during January or February; the leaves appear in March; and the fruit is ripe by April or May (Ex. 25:33–34; 37:19–20; Num. 17:8; Eccl. 12:5).

Almsgiving. Donations for the poor, mentioned frequently in the New Testament (Matt. 6:1–4; Luke 11:41; 12:31–34; Acts 3:3; 10:2; 24:17). Throughout his travels Paul gathered and distributed donations for the needy saints in Jerusalem (Rom. 15:25–27; 1 Cor. 16:1–2; 2 Cor. 8:9; Gal. 2:10). This was an organized and united welfare program of the Church. Although not mentioned in the O.T. as alms, the principle is given in many instances; for example, Deut. 24:19. See also Ps. 41:1; 112:9; Prov. 14:21; 19:17; 22:9; 28:27; Acts 9:36; 11:29–30; Philip. 4:18; 1 Tim. 6:18–19.

Almug. "Sandalwood"; imported by Solomon from Ophir for the temple, for his own house, and for musical instruments, 1 Kgs. 10:11–12; 2 Chr. 2:8; 9:10–11. The wood used was probably the red sandalwood of India, of which musical instruments are still made.

Aloes, or Lign-aloes. Some aromatic and highly prized wood is indicated (Num. 24:6; Ps. 45:8; Prov. 7:17; Song. 4:14). A mixture of myrrh and aloes was used for embalming (John 19:39).

Alpha. First letter of the Greek alphabet, often used in conjunction with Omega, the last letter, and applied as descriptive names of the all-encompassing nature of Christ, being the first and the last, the beginning and the end (Rev. 1:8, 11; 21:6; 22:13; 3 Ne. 9:18; D&C 19:1; 38:1; 45:7).

Alphaeus. (1) Father of Matthew or Levi (Mark 2:14). (2) Father of James the apostle (Matthew 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13); by some scholars identified with Cleopas (Luke 24:18) and Cleophas (John 19:25). See also James.

Altar. Used for sacrifices and offerings and for sacred ordinances of the gospel. Altars are first mentioned in Gen. 8:20; animal sacrifice was offered on altars (Gen. 12:7–8; 13:4, 18; 22:9; 26:25; 33:20; 35:7; Num. 23:1, 29; 1 Sam. 14:35; 1 Kgs. 18:30–32). At the four corners were four horns; on these, the loftiest points of the altar, the blood of the sin offerings was put, that the atonement be brought nearer to God. At times these horns were also a place of refuge for fugitives (1 Kgs. 1:50; 2:28). The materials of an altar were either of raised earth (Ex. 20:24; 2 Kgs. 5:17), or unhewn stones (Ex. 20:25; Deut. 27:5; Josh. 8:31). The Israelites often enclosed the earth or stones in a wooden case to preserve the proper shape (Ex. 27:1). The wood again might be overlaid with brass or gold (Ex. 39:39; 40:26). In the tabernacle the Altar of Burnt Offering stood in a court outside the tent; its outer frame was acacia wood overlaid with brass (Ex. 27:1–2; 39:39). Around it, halfway up, was a ledge (Ex. 27:5), with rings and staves by which it was carried. In the Holy Place, before the veil and the mercy seat (Ex. 30:6) was the Altar of Incense, similar in construction to the Altar of Burnt Offering, but smaller and overlaid with gold. On it incense was burned morning and evening (no animal sacrifices); and on its horns once a year, on the Day of Atonement, the blood of the sin offering was put (Ex. 30:10). In the Holy of Holies stood the Ark of the Covenant, and over it the mercy seat. These also served as a type of sin offering on the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16:14–15). The furniture of Solomon's Temple was similar to that of the tabernacle. The Altar of Incense was of cedarwood overlaid with gold. In the outer court stood the brazen altar made after the former pattern, but much larger (2 Chr. 4:1). Ahaz replaced it by an altar apparently of a Damascus pattern (2 Kgs. 16:11–16). Under the Law (Deut. 12:5, 11–14) the people were forbidden to build an altar except in the place where God should choose to put his Name, i.e., the temple at Jerusalem; but until the days of Hezekiah sacrifices apparently were offered in other places as well. Altars are also mentioned in Matt. 5:23; Acts 17:23; Heb. 13:10; Rev. 6:9; 8:3; 9:13; 11:1; 1 Ne. 2:7; Alma 15:17; D&C 135:7; Abr. 1:8 ff.

Amalek, Amalekites. An Arab tribe that lived in the desert of Paran between the Arabah and the Mediterranean, and at one time seem to have ranged as far north as Mount Ephraim (Judg. 5:14; 12:15). The Amalekites were at constant war with the Hebrews from the time of Moses (Ex. 17:8, etc.), till their power was broken by Saul and David (1 Sam. 15; 27:8; 30; 2 Sam. 8:12), and their last remnant was destroyed by the Simeonites (1 Chr. 4:43).

Amarna. See Tell el-Amarna Letters.

Amasa. A burden. Made captain of the host by Absalom (2 Sam. 17:25); offer made to Amasa by David (19:13); was slain by Joab (20:4–5, 8–12; 1 Kgs. 2:5, 32; 1 Chr. 2:17).

Amaziah. Strong (is) the Lord. (1) King of Judah (2 Kgs. 12:21; 13:12); slays murderers of his father, conquers Edom, overcome and spoiled by Joash, slain at Lachish (14:1–23; 15:1, 3; 1 Chr. 3:12; 2 Chr. 24:27—26:4). (2) Priest of Beth-el (Amos 7:10–17; others in 1 Chr. 4:34; 6:45).

Amen. Firm, true. The word is used to denote acceptance (Deut. 27:15–26) or truthfulness (1 Kgs. 1:36). Amen was the proper response of a person to whom an oath was administered (1 Chr. 16:36; Neh. 5:13; 8:6). Christ is called "the Amen, the faithful and true witness" (cf. John 14:6; 1 Cor. 14:16; 2 Cor. 1:20; Rev. 3:14).

Ammon, Ammonites. A tribe descended from Lot, the nephew of Abraham (Gen. 19:38; Deut. 2:19); worshippers of Molech or Milcom (1 Kgs. 11:7, 33); they were settled east of Mount Gilead, from the Jabbok southwards, and in the time of the Judges laid claim to the Israelite settlements in Gilead (Judg. 11), but were repulsed by Jephthah and again by Saul (1 Sam. 11), and finally reduced to subjection by David (2 Sam. 10; 11:1; 12:9, 26, 31). They regained their independence after David's death and maintained it, as allies of their Aramaean neighbors and bitter enemies of Israel, till they fell under the power of Assyria and Chaldea (Amos 1:13 ff.; Zeph. 2:8; 2 Kgs. 24:2; Ezek. 25:2 ff.). Nor were they less hostile to the Jews after the Captivity (Neh. 4; 1 Macc. 5). Even under foreign rule the obstinate little nation retained its individuality for two centuries after Christ, till it disappeared, absorbed by the advance of the Arabs. The capital Rabbath Ammon received a Greek colony and the name of Philadelphia from Ptolemy Philadelphus, but the old name reappears in the modern Amman.

Amorites. There is some uncertainty as to the use of this name; it probably denotes a fair-skinned and blue-eyed race (as we learn from Egyptian monuments) who inhabited the south of Palestine before Semitic tribes like the Israelites, Ammonites, Edomites, etc., made their appearance there. Lachish was one of their chief cities. In the Tell el-Amarna tablets Amurri is the common name for Palestine. Among the Amorites were included the Hivites.

Amos. Burden. The prophet Amos prophesied in the days of Uzziah, king of Judah (died about 740 B.C.), and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (died about 750 B.C.). He was a shepherd (Amos 1:1; 7:14) and a native of Tekoa, 12 miles south of Jerusalem, but his ministry was among those of the northern kingdom of Israel. His emphasis was upon the moral character of Jehovah, the righteous ruler of all nations and men. Amos shows that the offering the Lord most cares for is a righteous life—the sacrifices of animals lose their meaning if offered as substitutes for personal righteousness (5:21–27). The fact that Israel is the covenant people would make their punishment the heavier (3:2; 9:7). Yet Israel will not be utterly destroyed (9:8), and in the last days the kingdom will return to and even surpass its ancient glory (9:11–15). Amos emphasizes that the Lord speaks through his prophets in warning mankind (3:7).

Amram. A Levite, son of Kohath (Num. 3:17–19; 1 Chr. 6:2–3, 18); married Jochebed and became father of Moses and Aaron (Ex. 6:18–20) and Miriam (Num. 26:59; 1 Chr. 6:3).

Anak, Anakim. Long-necked, a giant race. Settled near Hebron but also met with further north (Num. 13:32–33; Deut. 1:28; 2:10–11, 21; 9:1–2; Josh. 14:12–15; 11:21–22).

Ananias. (1) Punished for lying (Acts 5:1–6). (2) A Christian disciple at Damascus who baptized Paul (Acts 9:10–18; 22:12). (3) The high priest before whom Paul was brought by Caesar Lysias, and who was one of Paul's accusers at the hearing before Felix (Acts 23:2–5; 24:1). An evil person, he was finally murdered by the populace during a disturbance in Jerusalem.

Anathema. An accursed thing (1 Cor. 16:22).

Andrew. Brother of Simon Peter. As a disciple of John the Baptist he met Jesus and then brought Peter to meet Jesus. He was one of the earliest called to be a disciple of Jesus Christ, and was one of the Twelve. Matt. 4:18; 10:2; Mark 1:16, 29; 13:3; John 1:40, 44; 6:8; 12:22.

Angels. These are messengers of the Lord, and are spoken of in the epistle to the Hebrews as "ministering spirits" (Heb. 1:14). We learn from latter-day revelation that there are two classes of heavenly beings who minister for the Lord: those who are spirits and those who have bodies of flesh and bone. Spirits are those beings who either have not yet obtained a body of flesh and bone (unembodied), or who have once had a mortal body and have died, and are awaiting the resurrection (disembodied). Ordinarily the word angel means those ministering persons who have a body of flesh and bone, being either resurrected from the dead (reembodied), or else translated, as were Enoch, Elijah, etc. (D&C 129).

There are many references to the work of angels in the O.T. In some passages the "angel of the Lord" speaks as the voice of God himself (Gen. 22:11–12). The word angel is also sometimes used to designate a human messenger, as in JST Gen. 19, and may have some application also in Matt. 13:39–42. There is evidence of nonmortal beings who serve God in heaven (1 Kgs. 22:19; cf. Alma 36:22) and also of some who do God's will and minister to men on the earth (Gen. 28:12; 32:1; 2 Sam. 24:16; 1 Kgs. 19:5–7; 2 Kgs. 1:15; 19:35; Ps. 91:11).

We find angels mentioned by name in Dan. 8:16; 9:21; 10:13, 21; 12:1; Luke 1:19, 26. In latter-day revelation we learn that the angel Michael is Adam, and the angel Gabriel is Noah (HC 3:386).

In the N.T. there are many references to the ministry of angels, but no clear statement as to their nature or their relation to mankind in general. Angels attended on our Lord throughout his life on earth (Matt. 1:20; 2:13, 19; 4:11; 28:2–8; Luke 1:11–20, 26–30; 2:9–15; 22:43). Jesus often spoke of angels (Matt. 13:14–30, 37–41; 16:27; 18:10; 22:30; 24:36; Luke 15:10, etc.). The Sadducees did not believe in supernatural beings, but the Pharisees believed in both angels and spirits, which fact Paul used to his advantage when brought before the Sanhedrin (Acts 23:7–9). Other N.T. references are Acts 7:53; 1 Cor. 4:9; 6:3; 11:10; Gal. 1:8; 3:19; Col. 2:18 (where we are warned against worship of angels), and throughout the Revelation of John. There are references to fallen angels in 2 Pet. 2:4 and Jude 1:6.

The scriptures speak of the devil's angels. These are those spirits who followed Lucifer and were thrust out in the war in heaven and cast down to the earth. See Rev. 12:1–9; D&C 29:36–38; Moses 4:1–4; Abr. 3:27–28, and as alluded to by Peter and Jude cited above.

Latter-day revelation contains much about the nature, ministry, and identification of angels. See 2 Ne. 32:2–3; Alma 12:28–29; 13:24–26; Moro. 7:29–31; D&C 7:6–7; 13; 37; 76:21; 110:11–16; 128:21; 129; 132:16–18. Angels do not have wings (HC 3:392).

The word angel is used in various ways. A person who is a divine messenger is called an angel. Thus Moroni, John the Baptist, Peter, James, John, Moses, Elijah, and Elias all ministered to Joseph Smith as angels. These all shall be exalted and inherit celestial glory. The scriptures also speak of another class of persons who, because of failure to obey the gospel, will not be exalted and will become angels in eternity. These are spoken of as angels in Matt. 22:29–30 and D&C 132:16–18. This latter designation should not be confused with the use of the term angels having reference to the heavenly messengers sent forth to minister to the inhabitants of the earth.

Animals. Created, Gen. 1:24; names given to, Gen. 2:20; dominion over, given to man, Gen. 1:24–26; 9:2; Ps. 8:6–8; cf. Mark 1:13; preserved in the ark, Gen. 6:19–22; penalty for damage done by, Ex. 21:28–36; 22:5; penalty for offenses against, Ex. 21:33–34; care for, Ex. 22:30; 23:5, 19; 34:26; Lev. 22:27–28; Deut. 14:21; 22:4, 6–7; 25:4; Prov. 12:10; 1 Cor. 9:9; 1 Tim. 5:18.

Anise, or "dill." Cultivated for its seeds as a carminative and for seasoning dishes. See Matt. 23:23.

Anna (N.T. form of Hannah). A prophetess of the tribe of Asher who, after a short married life of seven years, had been, at the time of our Lord's birth, a widow for 84 years. She was one of those who greeted the infant Jesus at his presentation in the temple (Luke 2:36–38).

Annas. Appointed high priest in A.D. 7 by the Roman legate Quirinius and deposed in A.D. 15 by Valerius Gratus. From A.D. 18–36 his son-in-law (John 18:13) Joseph Caiaphas was high priest, and during this time Annas was a person of great influence in the Sanhedrin. Jesus, when arrested, was first brought to him (John 18:13); he also took a leading part in the trial of the apostles (Acts 4:6). In accordance with Jewish custom he kept the title "high priest" after he was deposed from office.

Annunciation. The message brought by the angel Gabriel to Mary announcing the Savior's birth (Luke 1:26–35).

Anoint. To apply oil or ointment to the head or the person. Anciently anointing was done for reasons both secular and sacred. It is a sign of hospitality in Luke 7:46, and of routine personal grooming in 2 Sam. 12:20 and Matt. 6:17. The maimed or sick were anointed with wine, oil, and/or ointment as medicine (Isa. 1:6; Luke 10:34; cf. Rev. 3:18). The sick were also anointed with oil as part of the sacred procedure in healing of the sick by faith and the laying on of hands (Mark 6:13; James 5:14–15).

Kings were anointed to their office by the prophets (1 Sam. 10:1; 16:13; 2 Sam. 5:3; 1 Kgs. 1:39; 19:16; 2 Kgs. 9:3, 6; 11:12; 1 Chr. 11:3; 29:22; 2 Chr. 23:11). The anointing of the priests is outlined in Ex. 40:15; of the high priest (Aaronic order) in Lev. 21:10. Elisha was to be anointed a prophet by Elijah (1 Kgs. 19:16).

The holy anointing oil used in the law of Moses was composed of olive oil mixed with spices and was to be restricted in use to certain specified ceremonies (Ex. 30:22–33; 37:29). Paul and John speak of an anointing of the Spirit (2 Cor. 1:21–22; 1 Jn. 2:20, 27), and Peter says that "God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Ghost and with power" (Acts 10:38). See Anointed One.

In the Church today holy consecrated olive oil is used in anointing persons in various sacred ceremonies, including administration to the sick. Although the scriptures do not specifically so state, we may confidently assume that anointing with oil has been part of true, revealed religion ever since the gospel was first introduced on this earth to Adam.

Anointed One. Jesus is spoken of as the Christ and the Messiah, which means he is the one anointed of the Father to be his personal representative in all things pertaining to the salvation of mankind. The English word Christ is from a Greek word meaning anointed, and is the equivalent of Messiah, which is from a Hebrew and Aramaic term meaning anointed. See Ps. 2:2; Isa. 61:1–3; Luke 4:16–32; Acts 4:23–30; 10:38.

Anon. Immediately (Matt. 13:20; Mark 1:30).

Antichrist. A word used by John to describe one who would assume the guise of Christ, but in reality would be opposed to Christ (1 Jn. 2:18, 22; 4:3–6; 2 Jn. 1:7). In a broader sense it is anyone or anything that counterfeits the true gospel or plan of salvation and that openly or secretly is set up in opposition to Christ. The great antichrist is Lucifer, but he has many assistants both as spirit beings and as mortals. See 2 Thes. 2:1–12; Rev. 13:17; Jacob 7:1–23; Alma 1:2–16; 30:6–60.

Antioch. (1) In Syria, an important city on the Orontes, founded 300 B.C. by Seleucus Nicator; in N.T. times the third city in the Roman Empire. It was the chief meeting point of East and West, and a most disreputable city. During Paul's life it was a center of gentile Christianity (Acts 6:5; 11:19–30; 13:1; 14:26; 15:22–35; 18:22; Gal. 2:11). (2) In Pisidia, a Phrygian city in the Roman province of Galatia (Acts 13:14; 14:19–21; 2 Tim. 3:11).

Antiochus Epiphanes. King of Syria (175–164 B.C.), at a time when Palestine was a Syrian province. He resolved to try to crush all that was distinctive of Jewish nationality and worship. The struggle that followed is recorded in 1 Maccabees.

Antipas or Antipater. See Herod.

Antipatris. A city founded by Herod the Great on the road from Jerusalem to Caesarea (Acts 23:31).

Apharsachites, -sathchites, -sites. Assyrian colonists in Samaria (Ezra 4:9; 5:6; 6:6).

Apocalypse. See Revelation of John.

Apocrypha. Secret or hidden. By this word is generally meant those sacred books of the Jewish people which were not included in the Hebrew Bible (see Canon). They are valuable as forming a link connecting the Old and New Testaments, and are regarded in the Church as useful reading, although not all the books are of equal value. They are the subject of a revelation recorded in D&C 91, in which it is stated that the contents are mostly correct, but with many interpolations by man. Among these books the following are of special value:

The First Book of Esdras. Contains an account of Josiah's religious reforms and the subsequent history down to the destruction of the Temple 588 B.C. It then describes the return under Zerubbabel and the events that followed, of which we have another account in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Esdras is another form of the name Ezra.

In Esdras 3:1—5:6 is a story that tells how Zerubbabel by his wisdom as page of Darius won the king's favor and obtained permission to restore the captive Jews to their own country. This section is entirely independent of the canonical scriptures.

Of the date of the compilation of the book we know nothing save that its contents were known to Josephus (born A.D. 38).

The Second Book of Esdras. Contains seven visions or revelations made to Ezra, who is represented as grieving over the afflictions of his people and perplexed at the triumph of gentile sinners. The book is marked by a tone of deep melancholy. The only note of consolation is presented in the thought of the retribution that is to fall upon the heads of the Gentiles who have crushed the Jews. The references to the Messiah (7:28–29; 12:32; 13:32, 37, 52) deserve special notice. Many scholars feel the book was composed in the first century A.D.

The Book of Tobit. The story is briefly as follows: Tobit is a Jew of the tribe of Naphtali, living in Nineveh, a pious God-fearing man and very strict in the observance of the Jewish law. Trouble comes upon him, and he loses his eyesight. He sends his son Tobias to fetch ten talents of silver, which he had left in the hands of his kinsman Gabael who dwelt at Rages in Media. Tobias takes a traveling companion with him, who is in reality the angel Raphael. On the way they stop at Ecbatana and lodge at the house of one Raguel, whose daughter Sara has through the evil spirit Asmodeus been seven times deprived of husbands on the night of wedlock. Tobias on the ground of kinship claims her in marriage, and her parents grant consent. By supernatural means, with which Raphael had supplied him, he is able to expel the demon Asmodeus. During the marriage festivities the angel journeys to Rages and obtains the money from Gabael. Tobias and his wife then return to Nineveh; and by further application of supernatural means Tobias is able to restore his father's sight. Raphael, having revealed his true nature, disappears. Tobit breaks forth into a song of thanksgiving. He and his family end their days in prosperity. The work's general character seems to show that it was written in praise of a life spent in devout consistency with the Jewish law, even in a strange land.

The Book of Judith. Purports to describe a romantic event in the history of the Jews, that is, the murder of the Assyrian general Holofernes by Judith, a rich and beautiful widow of Betulia. The historical contradictions in the story, as well as its general character, leave us no reason to doubt that it is a work of fiction, in which perhaps some traditional deed of heroism in early days has been worked up.

The rest of the chapters of the Book of Esther. These chapters expand in greater detail the narrative of the canonical book. Their object is to illustrate the hearing of prayer and the deliverances from the Gentiles that God wrought for his people the Jews.

The Book of the Wisdom of Solomon. Written in praise of "Wisdom" and in condemnation of those who willfully rejected her. It purports to be addressed by the Israelite king Solomon to the kings and rulers of the earth. Many scholars feel it is of 1st century A.D. origin, in the Greek language. It shows traces of the influence of Greek philosophy. The most famous passages are those containing the description of "the righteous man" (4:7–18) and the picture of "Wisdom" (chs. 7—9).

The object of the book is to warn Alexandrian Jews against abandoning the religion of their fathers. The "Wisdom" of the book of Proverbs, "the fear of the Lord," is asserted to be the basis of all true happiness.

The Wisdom of Jesus the son of Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus. This is the only book in the Apocrypha to which the name of the author can be assigned. In ch. 50:27 he speaks of himself as "Jesus the son of Sirach of Jerusalem." We know nothing of him beyond what is told in the prologue to the book.

In style and character the book resembles the canonical book of Proverbs. The greater part is occupied with questions of practical morality. Some of the subjects discussed are friendship, old age, women, avarice, health, wisdom, anger, servants. The Song of Praise of the works of Creation (42:15—43:33) is a very powerful and beautiful composition, and the eulogy of the nation's great men runs over the whole roll of the O.T. heroes, the omission of Ezra, Daniel, and Mordecai being remarkable.

The book was originally written in Hebrew and has come down to us in a Greek translation made by the author's grandson, who prefixed to it a preface. This preface deserves special notice for its reference to the Jewish scriptures under the threefold title of "the Law, the Prophets, and the rest of the writings." Some leaves containing about 23 chapters in Hebrew were discovered at Cairo in 1896.

The name "Ecclesiasticus" dates from the time of Cyprian (Bishop of Carthage, A.D. 248–258). It has no connection with Ecclesiastes.

The Book of Baruch. So called because it purports to contain a work written by Baruch, the prophet, in Babylon, in the fifth year after the destruction of Jerusalem by the Chaldeans. Most scholars feel that it was probably composed at a later date.

Attached to the Book of Baruch is the so-called Epistle of Jeremy, purporting to be a letter written by the prophet Jeremiah to the Jews who were being carried away captive to Babylon.

The Song of the Three Children. Purports to be the song sung by Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego (they are called Ananias, Azarias, and Misael in v. 66) in the midst of the burning, fiery furnace.

The History of Susanna. This story describes how Daniel as a young man procured the vindication of Susanna from a shameful charge, and the condemnation of the two elders who had borne false witness against her.

Bel and the Dragon. In this fragment we have two more anecdotes related of Daniel. In the first, Daniel discovers for king Cyrus the frauds practiced by the priests of Bel in connection with the pretended banquets of that idol. In the second we have the story of his destruction of the sacred dragon that was worshipped at Babylon. Both stories serve the purpose of bringing idolatry into ridicule.

The Prayer of Manasses, king of Judah. This is a penitential prayer built up, for the most part, of sentences and phrases taken from the canonical scriptures. There is little reason for giving it the title that it bears.

The First Book of the Maccabees. (See Maccabees.) The importance of this work for our knowledge of Jewish history in the 2nd century B.C. can hardly be surpassed. It recounts with great minuteness the whole narrative of the Maccabean movement from the accession of Antiochus Epiphanes (175) to the death of Simon (135). The persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes and the national rising led by the aged priest Mattathias, the heroic war of independence under the lead of Judas the Maccabee, the recovery of religious freedom and political independence under Jonathan (160–143) and Simon (143–135) mark the chief divisions of the stirring period that the book chronicles.

The Second Book of the Maccabees. Deals with the history of the Jews during fifteen years (175–160), and therefore goes over part of the period described in 1 Macc. It is inferior to that book both in simplicity and in accuracy because legends are introduced with great freedom. However, the doctrine of the resurrection is strongly affirmed.

The books mentioned above taken together make up what is generally known as the Apocrypha. They are frequently printed along with the canonical scriptures. The Roman Church regards as part of the canon the books of Tobit, Judith, Wisd., Ecclus., Baruch, 1 and 2 Macc., and the additions to Daniel and Esther. Besides these books, there are other Jewish apocryphal writings. The chief are the Psalms of Solomon, the Book of Enoch, the Apocalypse of Baruch, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, the Assumption of Moses, the Book of Jubilees, and the Sibylline Oracles.

Apollos. An Alexandrian Jew, an eloquent man and mighty in the scriptures (Acts 18:24—19:1). He received instruction in the gospel at Ephesus from Aquila and Priscilla and then went to Corinth; his name was afterwards connected with one of the disputes that arose there (1 Cor. 1:12; 3:4–6, 22; 16:12). We afterwards hear of him in Crete (Tit. 3:13).

Apollyon. Destroyer, a Greek translation of the Hebrew word Abaddon, or Destruction; in Rev. 9:11 it is the name of the Angel of the Abyss (bottomless pit) made familiar to English readers by Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress.

Apostle. The word means "one sent forth." It was the title Jesus gave (Luke 6:13) to the twelve whom he chose and ordained (John 15:16) to be his closest disciples during his ministry on earth, and whom he sent forth to represent him after his ascension into heaven. The calling of an apostle is to be a special witness of the name of Jesus Christ in all the world, particularly of his divinity and of his bodily resurrection from the dead (Acts 1:22; D&C 107:23).

Twelve men with this high calling constitute an administrative council in the work of the ministry. When a vacancy occurred with the death of Judas Iscariot, Matthias was divinely appointed to that special office as a member of the council (Acts 1:15–26). Today twelve men with this same divine calling and ordination constitute the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

The title was also applied to others who, though not of the number of the original twelve, yet were called to serve as special witnesses of the Lord. Paul repeatedly spoke of himself as an apostle (Rom. 1:1; 1 Cor. 1:1; 9:1; Gal. 1:1). He applied the title to James, the Lord's brother (Gal. 1:19), and also to Barnabas (1 Cor. 9:5–6; cf. Acts 14:4, 14). The New Testament does not inform us whether these three brethren also served in the council of the Twelve as vacancies occurred therein, or whether they were apostles strictly in the sense of being special witnesses for the Lord Jesus Christ.

Jesus is referred to as an apostle in Heb. 3:1–2, a designation meaning that he is the personal and select representative of the Father.

Appii Forum. or Market of Appius. A place on the Appian Road, 43 miles from Rome (Acts 28:15).

Aquila. A Jew, native of Pontus, settled in Rome as a tentmaker, married to Priscilla or Prisca, expelled from Rome by decree of Claudius, settled in Corinth where Paul met them, and then moved to Ephesus (Acts 18:2–3, 18). At Ephesus Aquila and Priscilla instructed Apollos in the faith (Acts 18:26), and their house seems to have been a center of Church activity (1 Cor. 16:19). From the references to them in Rom. 16:3 it appears that they returned to Rome, but later on we find them again at Ephesus (2 Tim. 4:19).

Ar. Capital of Moab, at the eastern end of one of the Arnon valleys (Num. 21:15, 28; Deut. 2:9, 18, 29; Isa. 15:1).

Arabia, Arabians. The inhabitants of southern Arabia are called in the O.T. Joktanites (Gen. 10:26–30). A semitic trading race, they were closely allied to the Abyssinians. In middle Arabia were the Ishmaelites, who claimed descent from Abraham, but in language were more closely allied to the people of southern Arabia than to the Hebrews. In northern Arabia were a large number of wandering tribes, of whom the Midianites were the chief, descended from Abraham and Keturah (Gen. 25:1–4). These tribes are frequently called in O.T. "the Children of the East."

Aram, Aramaeans. The Aramaeans were not a single nation, but a widespread branch of the Semitic race. In the King James Version they are generally called Syrians. According to Gen. 10:22 Aram was son of Shem, but in Gen. 22:21 he is called son of Kenuel and grandson of Nahor. The Aramaeans therefore had kinship with the Hebrews. Their oldest seats were in Mesopotamia (Aram-Naharaim or Aram of the Two Rivers). From an early date there were many Aramaeans in Assyria and Babylonia, and in these countries the Aramaic language finally prevailed over the old Assyrian and was only displaced by the Arab conquest. On the other hand, the Aramaeans crossed the Euphrates and, pushing aside the old inhabitants of the Orontes valley, were settled in the time of David as far south as Damascus and Beth-Rehob on the southern skirts of Hermon (2 Sam. 8:3 ff.; 10:6 ff.). These immigrants were not yet strong enough to resist David, who reduced them to subjection, but Damascus regained its independence under Solomon and soon became the center of a powerful kingdom, which pressed hard on Israel from the days of Ahab downward, and reduced the house of Jehu to the last extremity. When the Assyrians advanced on Canaan the first brunt of their attack fell on the Syrians, and the relief thus given to Israel seems to be alluded to in 2 Kgs. 13:5. At length, in 733 B.C., Damascus fell before Tiglath-pileser II and the Aramaeans lost their political independence. But their language, which was already that of a great part of the empire of Nineveh, continued to spread in the train of Assyrian and Persian conquest. Aramaic was the diplomatic speech of Palestine in the time of Hezekiah (2 Kgs. 18:26). There is evidence that after the return from exile the Jews themselves gradually adopted Aramaic as the language of common life. The dialect called Hebrew in the N.T. is not the language of David and Isaiah, but a form of Aramaic.

Aramaic. The official language of the Persian Empire, spoken widely throughout the Near East. Certain portions of the Old Testament are written in Aramaic (Gen. 31:46; Ezra 4:8—6:18; 7:12–26; Jer. 10:11; Dan. 2:4—7:28). Aramaic words are also found in Job, Song of Solomon, Jonah, Esther, the Hebrew parts of Daniel, and some of the Psalms.

The common language of the Jews after the return from Babylon was Aramaic, and it is most probable that Jesus and the Twelve spoke Galilean Aramaic, rather than the Hebrew of earlier times. See also Aram.

Ararat. The Hebrew name of the district called by the Assyrians Urartu, and now called Armenia. On one of its mountains the Ark rested (Gen. 8:4).

Arba. Father of Anak, i.e., ancestor of a race of giants (Josh. 14:15; 15:13; 21:11); founder of city of Arba, called Kirjath-arba, afterwards known as Hebron (Gen. 35:27).

Archelaus. Son of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:22). See also Herod.

Architecture. It is probable that long after their settlement in Palestine a considerable portion of the Israelites continued to dwell in tents; and tent sanctuaries were employed from the earliest times (2 Sam. 7:6–7) down to the reign of Josiah. It was not until the establishment of the monarchy that the taste for sumptuous buildings began to show itself. This was due in part to foreign influence, and David's house of cedar (2 Sam. 5:11) and the temple of Solomon were both erected by Phoenician workmen. Phoenician architecture had not such marked peculiarities as distinguished that of Egypt or of Babylonia. Temples were mostly of massive stone blocks; the decorations generally consisted of metal plating or of carved cedarwood. The Phoenicians, like other Semites, cared much more for richness of material than for beauty of form. Besides the products of Syria, ivory and sandalwood (called almug trees, 1 Kgs. 10:11), brought by the Tyrians from the remote East, were occasionally used. Thus Solomon had an ivory throne, overlaid, at least in part, with gold; and in later times there were ivory palaces (under Ahab, 1 Kgs. 22:39; see also Ps. 45:8), that is, of course, palaces in which ivory formed the principal interior decoration. Under the Seleucid dynasty the Greek style of architecture was introduced, but, owing to the religious scruples of the Jews, was never completely naturalized. The plastic representation of men and animals, which constituted an essential feature of Greek art, could not be tolerated by the strict Jews; and so strong was the feeling on this subject that at the time of the Jewish revolt it was thought necessary to demolish the palace built at Tiberias by Herod Antipas because of the sculptured animals with which it was adorned. See also House.

Areopagite. A member of the Council of the Areopagus (Acts 17:34).

Areopagus. The hill of Ares or Mars, in Athens, west of the Acropolis, where the council, which was the highest judicial authority in Athens, used to meet. The assembly mentioned in Acts 17:19 was probably an informal gathering and not a judicial tribunal.

Aretas. Father-in-law of Herod Antipas; Paul escapes from him (2 Cor. 11:32). See also Herod.

Ariel. Heb., altar of God. A name for Jerusalem (Isa. 29:1–7).

Arimathaea. Home of Joseph the wealthy counselor who was a disciple of Jesus (Matt. 27:57; Luke 23:50–51; John 19:38), and in whose tomb Jesus was buried. May be Ramathaim of the O.T., the birthplace of Samuel (1 Sam. 1:1), lying in the hill country of Ephraim northwest of Jerusalem, and sometimes called Ramah. See also Joseph; Ramah.

Aristarchus. A native of Thessalonica and a devoted fellow-laborer of Paul (Acts 19:29; 20:4; 27:2); with him in prison (Col. 4:10; Philem. 1:24).

Aristobulus. In Rom. 16:10 Paul sends a greeting to his "household." He is probably to be identified with the Aristobulus who was the younger brother of Herod Agrippa I and who lived in Rome and was a friend of the Emperor Claudius.

Ark. The vessel built by Noah for saving life during the great flood. Its dimensions were 300 cubits (i.e., about 450 ft.) long, 50 cubits wide, 30 cubits high; it was built of gopher or cypress wood, was three storeys high, and was divided into "rooms." See also Noah.

Ark of the Covenant. Also known as the Ark of Jehovah, and the Ark of the Testimony; an oblong chest of acacia or shittim wood overlaid with gold, 2½ cubits long, 1½ broad and high, made by Moses at God's command (Ex. 25). It was the oldest and most sacred of the religious symbols of the Israelites, and the Mercy Seat which formed its covering was regarded as the earthly dwelling place of Jehovah (Ex. 25:22). (See Mercy Seat.) The Ark was fitted with rings and staves, by which it was carried. Prayers were recited before it moved or rested (Num. 10:35, 36), and during its progress it was treated with the greatest reverence. According to 1 Kgs. 8:9 it contained only the Tables of the Law, but in Heb. 9:4 it is said to have contained the "pot of manna," and "Aaron's rod that budded," which had been ordered to be kept "before the Testimony," (Ex. 16:32–34; Num. 17:10; cf. Ex. 25:16; 40:20). The usual resting place of the Ark was in the Holy of Holies (see Tabernacle). It led the way at the passage of the Jordan (Josh. 3:3–13); it was present at the capture of Jericho (Josh. 6); and during the conquest of Canaan it seems to have been kept at Gilgal (9:6; 10:43). It was present at the solemn service held at Ebal (8:30–33). Later on it was removed to Shiloh (18:1; 1 Sam. 3:3). In the days of Eli it was captured by the Philistines (1 Sam. 4–7), who sent it back to Beth-shemesh (6:11–20), whence it was taken to Kirjath-jearim or Baale of Judah (6:21—7:2). Thence it was brought by David to Jerusalem, the journey being interrupted at Perezuzzah (2 Sam. 6; 1 Chr. 13:11). In Jerusalem it was placed in a separate tent, which David pitched for it (2 Sam. 7:2; 1 Chr. 16:1). It accompanied the army in the war against Ammon (2 Sam. 11:11), but David refused to take it with him in his campaign against Absalom (2 Sam. 15:24–25). On the completion of Solomon's temple it was placed in the Holy of Holies (1 Kgs. 8:1–8). Apparently it was removed by Manasseh, and reinstated by Josiah (2 Chr. 33; 35:3). In 2 Macc. 2:4 there is an untrustworthy tradition of its preservation by Jeremiah at the destruction of the temple. It had certainly disappeared before the building of the second temple. It was seen by John in his vision of heaven (Rev. 11:19).

Armageddon. A Greek transliteration from the Hebrew Har Megiddon, or Mountain of Megiddo. The valley of Megiddo is in the western portion of the plain of Esdraelon 50 miles north of Jerusalem. Several times the valley of Megiddo was the scene of violent and crucial battles during O.T. times (Judg. 5:19; 2 Kgs. 9:27; 23:29). A great and final conflict taking place at the second coming of the Lord is called the battle of Armageddon because it will be started in the same locale and will be decisive. See Zech. 11–14, especially 12:11; Rev. 16:14–21.

Arnon. The river of Moab, emptying into the Dead Sea (Num. 21:13–28; 22:36; etc.).

Artaxerxes. Longimanus. Son of Xerxes and king of Persia, 465–425 B.C.; hinders Jews from building (Ezra 4:7–23); gives commission to Ezra (6:14; 7:1–21; 8:1), and to Nehemiah (Neh. 2:1; 5:14; 13:6).

Asa. Physician or healer. (1) Third king of Judah; the history of his reign is told in 1 Kgs. 15–16; and 2 Chr. 14–16. We are told his "heart was perfect all his days." He raised the army to a state of efficiency, threw off the Egyptian yoke, and rebuilt the fortresses destroyed by Sheshonk. After this time there was no invasion from Egypt for more than 250 years. He made an alliance with Benhadad of Syria for the purpose of checking Baasha, king of Israel. By the advice of Azariah the prophet, he removed the high places, the Asherim, and sun-images, deposed the queen-mother Maachah and destroyed the idol she had made, and at a national assembly invited the people to make a covenant to seek Jehovah. (2) 1 Chr. 9:16.

Asahel. God hath made. Youngest son of Zeruiah, one of David's 30 heroes (2 Sam. 23:24) and a commander in his army (1 Chr. 27:7); celebrated for his swiftness of foot, an accomplishment much valued in ancient times; slain by Abner (2 Sam. 2:18–32); Joab's revenge (3:27–30; see also 1 Chr. 2:16; 11:26). Three other persons, 2 Chr. 17:8; 31:13; Ezra 10:15.

Asaph. A cymbal-playing Levite appointed leader of David's choir. Founded a family of singers called the "sons of Asaph" or "children of Asaph"; mentioned in the titles of various Psalms. See 1 Chr. 6:39; 15:17, 19; 16:4–7, 37; 25:1–9; 2 Chr. 5:12; 20:14; Ezra 2:41; 3:10; Neh. 7:44; Ps. 50, 73–83.

Ascension. The formal departure of the Risen Savior from the earth, 40 days after his resurrection. During the 40 days he had visited from time to time with the apostles, speaking to them "of things pertaining to the kingdom of God." The ascension took place from a point on the Mount of Olives in the presence of the disciples. At that time two angels from heaven testified that in the future the Lord would return "in like manner." See Mark 16:19; Luke 24:51; Acts 1:9–12; cf. John 6:62.

Asenath. Joseph's wife (Gen. 41:45, 50; 46:20).

Ashdod or Azotus. The Arabic Esdud, seat of the worship of Dagon (1 Sam. 5:1 ff.). Though allotted to Judah (Josh. 15:46–47) and occasionally held by kings of Judah (2 Chr. 26:6), it remained a Philistine city (Amos 1:8; Neh. 4:7). It was on the main route from Egypt to Phoenicia, midway between Gaza and Joppa. See Philistines.

Asher. Happy. Son of Jacob, by Zilpah, Leah's handmaid, Gen. 30:13; blessings of, Gen. 49:20; Deut. 33:24–29; boundaries and inheritance of the tribe, Josh. 17:7, 10–11; 19:24–31, 34; Levite cities in, 21:6, 30; Judg. 1:31–32 (Asherites); 5:17; 6:35; 7:23; 1 Kgs. 4:16; 1 Chr. 6:62, 74; the descendants of, 1 Chr. 7:30–40; 12:36; 2 Chr. 30:11; Ezek. 48:2–3, 34. In N.T., Anna of tribe of Aser (Asher), Luke 2:36.

Ashkelon, Askelon. One of the five chief cities of the Philistines (Judg. 1:18; 14:19; 1 Sam. 6:17; 2 Sam. 1:20; Amos 1:8; Zech. 9:5). Birthplace of Herod the Great.

Ashtaroth. Plural of Ashtoreth. Idols worshipped with Baal, by the Israelites (Judg. 2:13; 10:6; 1 Sam. 7:3–4; 12:10; 31:10). Also a city in Bashan (Deut. 1:4).

Asia. In N.T. denotes the Roman province that included the western parts of what is now called Turkey, that is, Mysia, Lydia, Caria, part of Phrygia, and the adjoining islands, Ephesus being the capital. See Rev. 1:11.

Asp. A kind of poisonous serpent (Deut. 32:33; Isa. 11:8).

Assyria and Babylonia. The two great Eastern empires before which all the old states of Syria and Palestine fell. We learn their history partly from the Bible narrative and also from contemporary monuments written in cuneiform characters and recently deciphered.

Babylonia or Shinar (Gen. 10:10) is the alluvial country on the lower course of the Euphrates and Tigris, of which Babel or Babylon was the chief city. Assyria, or Asshur, occupied the Tigris valley to the north of Babylonia. Its center lay on the left bank of the Tigris, where the great city of Nineveh stood, opposite Mosul. Babylon and Nineveh were long rivals, they had a common civilization of which the southern alluvium was the original home. Their language was Semitic, but in the southern country the Semites seem to have been preceded by another race from whom they acquired many things in their culture and religion, and to whom the origin of their peculiar cuneiform system of writing is generally ascribed. In process of time Assyria became the stronger power, and after the Egyptians retired from Mesopotamia it began to push forth beyond its original limits. In the latter part of the 12th century B.C. the great conqueror Tiglath-pileser I crossed the Euphrates and penetrated as far as the Phoenician coast; but these conquests were not permanent, and a period of deep decline followed; the monuments are silent for more than a century, and when they speak again about the close of the 10th century we find Assyria engaged in reestablishing its lost sovereignty in Mesopotamia.

The great conqueror Assurnazirpal (884–860) consolidated his kingdom throughout the country of the Two Rivers to the borders of Babylonia and took tribute from the western princes as far as Phoenicia, while his successor Shalmaneser II made many wars beyond the Euphrates. In 854 B.C. he defeated a great confederation of Syrian states with Damascus at its head, and in 842 he took tribute from Jehu, king of Israel, but no sustained attempt to incorporate Syria in the empire was made till the reign of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727). In 738 he took tribute from Damascus and Samaria (cf. 2 Kgs. 15:19); in 734 these powers revolted and the result of a fresh war was the destruction of Damascus, the depopulation of Gilead and Naphtali (2 Kgs. 15:29), and the acceptance of Assyrian suzerainty by Judah. There was now no independent state between Assyria and Egypt, nor had the latter power to check the progress of the victor. But when Tiglath-pileser died, the Ethiopian So or Sebech (2 Kgs. 17:4) had made himself lord of all Egypt and begun to foment a revolt in which Syria was involved together with Philistia and Samaria, and which occupied the whole reign of Shalmaneser V (727–722) and the first years of his successor. The siege of Samaria, begun by Shalmaneser (2 Kgs. 17:3 ff.), was concluded by Sargon (722–705), a valiant prince, who smote the Egyptians at Raphia (720), and maintained and extended his borders on all sides.

There was again a rising of the Philistines in 711 (Isa. 20), but once more the Egyptians failed their friends in the time of need. On Sargon's death a fresh revolt broke out through all the empire, and Merodach Baladan of Babylon sought alliances even in Judaea (2 Kgs. 20). If the Egyptians had been active Assyria might have been ruined, but while they encouraged the rebels they were so slow to take the field that the new king, Sennacherib (705–681), had time to crush the rising in the east and then appeared in Palestine (701). Once more the center of the revolt lay in the Philistine country supported by Hezekiah of Judah; but the rebels could do nothing without Egypt, and the siege of Ekron was formed before an Egyptian army appeared on the scene and was defeated in a great battle at Eltekeh. All Palestine now lay at the feet of the Assyrian; one man alone, the prophet Isaiah, who had never ceased to warn the Judaeans against the vanity of their reliance on Egypt, remained undaunted and encouraged Hezekiah not to surrender his stronghold. The prophet's confidence was justified; a great disaster fell on Sennacherib's host (2 Kgs. 19:35), and he was obliged to return to Nineveh leaving Judaea humbled indeed, but in possession of some measure of self-government.

Sennacherib was assassinated in 681 (2 Kgs. 19:37), and from this date the Bible has little to say of the Assyrians. But their power was still mighty under Esarhaddon (681–668), who invaded and conquered Egypt, and his son Assurbanipal. The latter lost Egypt, but otherwise maintained the empire in outward strength till his death, cir. 626 B.C. After this, the fall came swiftly. The Assyrians, powerful to destroy, never showed themselves able to build up a stable political structure. They ruled by terror, crushing their enemies by fire and sword or weakening them by wholesale deportations to other parts of their empire. Their subjects never ceased to be the foes of their masters, and the whole course of the empire was marked by incessant revolts. The Babylonians in particular rose again and again, and on the death of Assurbanipal finally recovered their independence.

Meanwhile the Median tribes to the northeast of Assyria had been consolidated into a kingdom with Ecbatana (Achmetha, Ezra 6:2, now Hamadan) as capital, and became lords of all the Iranian tableland, Persia (to the south of Media proper) acknowledging their suzerainty. Their king, Cyaxares, now began to press on Assyria. For a time their progress was interrupted by a great invasion of "Scythian" nomads, who overran Asia as far as Palestine and are probably alluded to in Jer. 4–6. But this diversion was only temporary and left Assyria exhausted. Again the Medes advanced in alliance with the Babylonians, and Nineveh fell, cir. 607 B.C. Assyria proper and the northern provinces fell into the hands of the Medes, while Syria lay open to be seized by Nabopolassar, king of Babylon. On this side, however, another claimant for empire had appeared in the person of king Necho of Egypt, who in the last days of Nineveh had advanced through Palestine to the Euphrates (2 Kgs. 23:29 ff.), and made Judah his vassal. Against him Nabopolassar sent his son, Nebuchadnezzar, who in 605 smote Necho in a great battle at Carchemish (Jer. 46:2).

The death of Nabopolassar checked the progress of the victor, but Nebuchadnezzar advanced again as soon as he was confirmed in his kingdom, and at the close of the century he was lord of all Syria to the Egyptian border. The Palestinian nations were still impatient of the yoke, and Egypt, under Necho's successor Apries (Pharaoh Hophra, Jer. 44:30), was still ready with offers of help. But Nebuchadnezzar's hand was too strong. Jerusalem was destroyed on a second revolt; Tyre too fell after a long struggle (Ezek. 29:17 ff.), and Egypt was humbled, though not permanently enslaved. Nebuchadnezzar's chief concern in his reign of 44 years (604–561) was, however, to strengthen and beautify Babylon (Dan. 4:30), whose walls and great temple of Bel were among the wonders of the ancient world. (See Babylon.)

With all this splendor the Babylonian empire was nothing more than a short epilogue to that of Assyria, ruled by the same methods and equally incapable of accomplishing anything permanent in politics. The succeeding kings from Evil Merodach (2 Kgs. 25:27) to Nabonidus were not even great warriors; and in 538 Babylon fell almost without a struggle before Cyrus, king of Persia, who was welcomed not only by the captive Jews (Isa. 45:1), but even by the people of Babylon, and at once entered on the whole inheritance of the empire. Cyrus had already overthrown the Median empire and the kingdom of Lydia in western Asia Minor, and on the east his conquests extended into Afghanistan, while his successor, Cambyses, subdued Egypt. Henceforth all western Asia was united in a single hand, and the Jews who returned to rebuild Jerusalem had before them no possibility of political independence, and could give effect to their sense of nationality only under the form of an exclusive religious community.

Athaliah. Daughter of Ahab, king of Israel, and his Phoenician wife Jezebel. Athaliah became the wife of Jehoram, king of Judah (2 Kgs. 8:18, 26; 2 Chr. 18:1; 21:6), and introduced Baal worship into the southern kingdom as her mother had done in the northern kingdom (2 Chr. 22:2–4; 24:7). In an effort to solidify her position she destroyed the royal heirs to the throne, but Joash escaped (2 Kgs. 11:1–3; 2 Chr. 22:2–12). She met her death by the sword (2 Kgs. 11:13–20).

Athens. Ancient capital of Attica, but by N.T. times it was in the Roman province known as Achaia. Much of its former greatness had passed away, and many Athenians had become engrossed in unprofitable discussions that Paul said were "too religious" (superstitious). Philosophy was represented by the Stoics and Epicureans. On his second mission journey Paul visited the city (Acts 17:15—18:1) and made a notable speech on Mars Hill, but it appears that his efforts met with only partial success.

Atonement. The word describes the setting "at one" of those who have been estranged, and denotes the reconciliation of man to God. Sin is the cause of the estrangement, and therefore the purpose of atonement is to correct or overcome the consequences of sin. From the time of Adam to the death of Jesus Christ, true believers were instructed to offer animal sacrifices to the Lord. These sacrifices were symbolic of the forthcoming death of Jesus Christ, and were done by faith in him (Moses 5:5–8).

Jesus Christ, as the Only Begotten Son of God and the only sinless person to live on this earth, was the only one capable of making an atonement for mankind. By his selection and foreordination in the Grand Council before the world was formed, his divine Sonship, his sinless life, the shedding of his blood in the garden of Gethsemane, his death on the cross and subsequent bodily resurrection from the grave, he made a perfect atonement for all mankind. All are covered unconditionally as pertaining to the fall of Adam. Hence, all shall rise from the dead with immortal bodies, because of Jesus' atonement. "For as in Adam all die, even so in Christ shall all be made alive" (1 Cor. 15:22), and all little children are innocent at birth. The atonement is conditional, however, so far as each person's individual sins are concerned, and touches every one to the degree that he has faith in Jesus Christ, repents of his sins, and obeys the gospel. The services of the Day of Atonement foreshadowed the atoning work of Christ (Lev. 4; 23:26–32; Heb. 9). The scriptures point out that no law, ordinance, or sacrifice would be satisfactory if it were not for the atonement of Jesus Christ (Heb. 10:1–9; 2 Ne. 9:5–24; Mosiah 13:27–32).

Sin is lawlessness (1 Jn. 3:4); it is a refusal on men's part to submit to the law of God (Rom. 8:7). By transgression man loses control over his own will and becomes the slave of sin (Rom. 7:14), and so incurs the penalty of spiritual death, which is alienation from God (Rom. 6:23). The atonement of Jesus Christ redeems all mankind from the fall of Adam and causes all to be answerable for their own manner of life. This means of atonement is provided by the Father (John 3:16–17), and is offered in the life and person of his Son, Jesus Christ (2 Cor. 5:19). See also Fasts; Sacrifices.

Atonement, Day of. See Fasts.

Augustus. (1) The first Roman emperor (Luke 2:1; Acts 25:21, 25); called Caesar (Acts 25:8, 11). (2) A title of later emperors (Acts 27:1).

Authorized Version. See Bible, English. The same as the King James Version (KJV).

Azariah. A king of Judah, also called Uzziah (2 Kgs. 14:21; 15:1, 7, 27; 1 Chr. 3:12; 2 Chr. 26). Also many other men, as in 2 Chr. 15:1; 26:16–21; Jer. 43:2; Dan. 1:6–7; 2:17.

Azekah. A city of Judah in the valley of Elah, near Lachish and Gath. It is involved in the David–Goliath story (1 Sam. 17:1), and is mentioned in 2 Chr. 11:9; Jer. 34:7. The Lachish letters in ink on broken bits of pottery also mention Azekah and were written nearby.

Azotus. Acts 8:40. See Ashdod.

Baal. Lord, possessor. The Sun-god and the male or generative principle in nature. The principal seat and source of his cult was Phoenicia (1 Kgs. 16:31). He was worshipped with different ideas and rites (cf. plural Baalim) in different places; by Moabites, etc., as Baal-peor (Num. 25:1–3, 17–18); at Shechem as Baal-berith (Judg. 8:33; 9:4); at Ekron as Baal-zebub (2 Kgs. 1:2). Baal is by some identified with Bel of Babylon and Zeus of Greece. The word Baal expresses the relation between lord and slave. Becoming utterly abominable from its associations, its use was abjured and Bosheth (shame) was substituted in names compounded with it. (Cf. Ishbosheth, Jerubbesheth = Gideon.) The prophets call Baal The Shame (Jer. 11:13; Hosea 9:10). Ashtoreth was the goddess generally worshipped along with Baal.

Compounds of Baal with a second word denote (1) an attribute of the god, (2) the place or manner of his worship, or (3) something that a place possesses.

Baasha. King of Israel, at war with Asa, smote house of Jeroboam, 1 Kgs. 15:16–22, 27–34; 2 Chr. 16:1–6; Jer. 41:9; Jehu's prophecy against, 1 Kgs. 16:1–7; executed by Zimri, v. 8–13; 21:22; 2 Kgs. 9:9.

Babel. See Babylon.

Babylon or Babel. The capital of Babylonia. According to Gen. 10:8–10 it was founded by Nimrod, and was one of the oldest cities of the land of Shinar; in 11:1–9 we have the record of the Tower of Babel and the "Confusion of Tongues." (See Ether 1:3–5, 34–35.) During the Assyrian supremacy (see Assyria) it became part of that empire, and was destroyed by Sennacherib. After the downfall of Assyria, Babylon became Nebuchadnezzar's capital. He built an enormous city of which the ruins still remain. The city was square, and the Euphrates ran through the middle of it. According to Herodotus the walls were 56 miles in circumference, 335 ft. high, and 85 ft. wide. A large part of the city consisted of beautiful parks and gardens. The chief building was the famous temple of Bel. Inscriptions that have been recently deciphered show that the Babylonians had accounts of the Creation and the Deluge in many ways similar to those given in the book of Genesis. Other inscriptions contain accounts of events referred to in the Bible histories of the kingdoms of Israel and Judaea, and also give valuable information as to the chronology of these periods.

A sketch of the history of the Babylonian empire will be found under Assyria.

In Rev. 14:8; 16:19; 17:5; 18:2, 10, 21, Babylon probably denotes Rome, the great antagonist of Messiah's kingdom; or possibly, apostate Jerusalem. Such a mystical use of the name is quite in accordance with Jewish custom. In 1 Pet. 5:13 Babylon probably referred to Rome.

In D&C 1:16, Babylon means the world.

Balaam. A prophet from Pethor by the Euphrates, bribed by Balak, king of Moab, to curse the Israelites, Num. 22:5 ff.; his life saved by means of the ass, 22:22 ff.; the curse turned to blessing, 23; 24; Deut. 23:4–5; Josh. 24:9–10; Neh. 13:2; his counsel, Num. 31:16; slain, 31:8; Josh. 13:22; Micah 6:5; 2 Pet. 2:15; Jude 1:11; Rev. 2:14.

Balm. An aromatic gum or spice used for healing wounds (Gen. 43:11; Jer. 8:22; 46:11; 51:8). A bush producing the resin from which the balm was made grew so plentifully in Gilead in O.T. times that the balm came to be known as the "balm of Gilead," and was exported to Tyre and Egypt (Gen. 37:25; Ezek. 27:17).

Baptism. From a Greek word meaning to dip or immerse. Baptism in water is the introductory ordinance of the gospel, and must be followed by baptism of the Spirit in order to be complete. As one of the ordinances of the gospel, it is associated with faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, repentance, and the laying on hands for the gift of the Holy Ghost. Baptism has always been practiced whenever the gospel of Jesus Christ has been on the earth and has been taught by men holding the holy priesthood who could administer the ordinances. Although there is some obscurity in the Bible as to the antiquity of baptism before the time of Jesus, from latter-day revelation it is clear that Adam was baptized (Moses 6:64–68) and that the patriarchs and prophets since his time have taught the gospel and administered the ordinances that pertain to the gospel. This includes both water baptism and the laying on of hands for the Holy Ghost (Moses 8:23–24). The Book of Mormon shows also that baptism was taught and practiced long before the coming of Jesus Christ (2 Ne. 31; Mosiah 18:8–17). In the N.T. Paul speaks of the children of Israel being baptized by Moses "in the cloud and in the sea" (1 Cor. 10:1–4). Noah and Abraham are spoken of as "preachers of righteousness," which means they taught the gospel and administered its ordinances (Gal. 3:8; Heb. 4:1–2; 2 Pet. 2:5; cf. Moses 8:23–24).

Baptism symbolizes death, burial, and resurrection, and can only be done by immersion. It is clear that John the Baptist and Philip baptized in that manner (Matt. 3:16; Acts 8:37–39; Rom. 6:1–6; Col. 2:12; D&C 20:72–74; 128:12–13). Any other method is not baptism.

We learn from latter-day revelation, which confirms the teaching in the Bible, that the Aaronic Priesthood has authority to baptize with water, whereas the Melchizedek Priesthood has power to baptize not only with water, but also to confer the Holy Ghost (D&C 13; JS-H 1:68–72). We note also that John the Baptist, who had the Aaronic Priesthood, recognized this distinction and used it to illustrate one of the differences between his mission and the mission of Jesus, who had the priesthood of Melchizedek (Matt. 3:11; Mark 1:8; Luke 3:15–16; John 1:25–33; cf. Acts 8:5–25).

Baptism is not optional if one wishes the fullness of salvation. Jesus said a person must be born of water and of the Spirit (John 3:3–5). When he sent the twelve apostles forth to teach the gospel he told them that whosoever believed and was baptized would be saved; and whosoever did not believe would be damned (Mark 16:16). Jesus himself was baptized "to fulfil all righteousness" (Matt. 3:15; 2 Ne. 31:4–11). But the Pharisees, being unwilling to accept the gospel, "rejected the counsel of God against themselves, being not baptized" (Luke 7:30).

Baptism in water has several purposes. It is for the remission of sins, for membership in the Church, and for entrance into the celestial kingdom; it is also the doorway to personal sanctification when followed by the reception of the Holy Ghost.

The age at which baptism should be administered is not specified in the Bible, although it is evident that candidates were to be old enough to be capable of belief and have some understanding. In latter-day revelation we learn that the Lord has set the age at eight years as the time when a person begins to become accountable and can be baptized (D&C 20:71; 68:25–28). This was also the age given in O.T. times (JST Gen. 17:11).

Baptism is a most sacred ordinance, which a person, having received it, can remember throughout life as a reminder of the personal commitment to Jesus Christ. Its symbolism is beautiful, and its consequences ever so desirable. John the Baptist had the signal honor among all men to take the Son of God into the water and baptize him, after which he saw the Holy Ghost descend upon Jesus. By being baptized Jesus obeyed the law himself, and set the example for all mankind. See also Confirmation; John the Baptist; Laying on of Hands.

Bar. Aramaic for son. Throughout the N.T. it is the first component of several names, such as Barabbas, Barjona, Bar-jesus, Barnabas, Bartholomew, etc.

Barabbas. Means son of the father. Name of the man released at the feast instead of Jesus at the time of the crucifixion. A "notable prisoner," he is identified as an insurrectionist and a robber (Matt. 27:16; Mark 15:7; Luke 23:18; John 18:40).

Barak. Lightning. At Deborah's command, leads the army of Israel (Judg. 4:5–22; 5:1, 12, 15; Heb. 11:32).

Barbarian. Literally means a foreigner. The word barbarian is not used in the O.T., but is synonymous with such words as stranger, alien, sojourner, and gentile. In the N.T. it connotes peoples of the Mediterranean area who are not of the Graeco-Roman culture (Rom. 1:14; Col. 3:11), and/or those whose language is not familiar to the hearer, as in 1 Cor. 14:11. See also Acts 28:2.

Bar-jesus. Son of Jesus (also called Elymas), a Jew who had obtained an influence over Sergius Paulus, the Roman proconsul in Cyprus (Acts 13:6–12). He is called a sorcerer or magician, and a false prophet. Paul destroyed his influence by calling down upon him a proof of the divine anger (Acts 13:11).

Bar-jona. Son of Jona, or son of John; a surname of Simon Peter (Matt. 16:17; John 1:42).

Barley. A food grain cultivated from the earliest times; in Palestine it is sown from the beginning of November till the beginning of December; the harvest is about three weeks earlier than wheat harvest. Often it was mixed with other, more palatable, grains in making flour. See Ex. 9:31; Deut. 8:8; Ruth 1:22; John 6:9–13.

Barnabas. Son of consolation. A name given to Joseph, a Levite of Cyprus, who sold his possessions and gave the proceeds to the apostles (Acts 4:36–37); was of service to Saul after his conversion (9:27); was sent by the apostles to Antioch, where he worked with Saul (11:22–30; 12:25); with Paul on missionary journey (chs. 13—14); and at Jerusalem (ch. 15); they parted (15:39). See also 1 Cor. 9:6; Gal. 2:1, 9, 13; Col. 4:10. Though not one of the twelve, he was regarded as an apostle (Acts 14:4, 14).

Barsabas. (1) Joseph called Barsabas (Acts 1:23). (2) Judas surnamed Barsabas (15:22, 27–33).

Bartholomew. One of the twelve (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:14; Acts 1:13). See also Nathanael.

Bartimaeus. A blind man healed by Christ (Mark 10:46).

Baruch. Blessed. Jeremiah's scribe (Jer. 32:12 f.; 36); taken to Egypt (43:2–6; 45).

Bashan. The district east of Jordan and north of Gilead, assigned to Manasseh (Num. 21:33; 32:33; Deut. 1:4; 3:1–14; 1 Kgs. 4:13). It was an area rich in grain production and known for its breed of cattle (Ps. 22:12), to which Amos made a symbolic and uncomplimentary reference (Amos 4:1–3).

Bat. Included in the list of unclean birds (Lev. 11:19; Deut. 14:18).

Bath. See Weights and Measures.

Bathsheba. Wife of Uriah. David's sin with, 2 Sam. 11; 12; mother cf. Solomon, 12:24; 1 Kgs. 1:11–31; 2:13–19; Ps. 51 (title); granddaughter of Ahithophel.

Bdellium. A product of the land of Havilah (Gen. 2:12); probably a gum of some kind used as a drug, but possibly some precious stone.

Bear. The Palestine variety is the common brown bear, still frequently seen on Mounts Lebanon and Hermon.

Beard. Regarded by the Jews as of great importance (whereas Egyptians always shaved); the trimming of the corners was forbidden (Lev. 19:26–28), such a practice being a mark of idolatry (Jer. 41:5). See also 1 Sam. 21:13; 2 Sam. 10:4. A leper was compelled to shave (Lev. 14:9).

Beatitudes. Name given to certain declarations of blessedness in the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5:3–11, cf. Luke 6:20–22). They describe certain elements that go to form the refined and spiritual character, and all of which will be present whenever that character exists in its perfection. Rather than being isolated statements, the Beatitudes are interrelated and progressive in their arrangement. A more comprehensive and accurate listing is found in 3 Ne. 12 and JST Matt. 5, where a greater spiritual emphasis is given.

Beautiful Gate of the Temple. Between the Court of the Gentiles and the Women's Court (Acts 3:10).

Beelzebub. Name of a Philistine god. Used as a title for the "chief of the demons," or Satan. The Pharisees referred to him as the "prince of the devils" (Matt. 12:24). Jesus denied that he cast out devils by the power of Beelzebub (Luke 11:14–20). See also 2 Kgs. 1:1–6, where it is spelled Baalzebub.

Beersheba. Well of the oath. The home of Abraham (Gen. 21:31); Isaac (26:23); Jacob (28:10), so called from the covenant Abraham made here with Abimelech, king of Gerar (21:31). It was afterwards in the tribe of Simeon (Josh. 19:2) and was regarded as the southern limit of Israel (Judg. 20:1; 1 Sam. 3:20; etc.). The district contained much rich pasture land.

Behemoth. Apparently the intensive plural of behemah, meaning "beast." A large river animal (possibly the hippopotamus), described in Job 40:15–24.

Bel. A Babylonian god, same as Baal (Isa. 46:1; Jer. 50:2; 51:44).

Belial. Worthless. Sometimes translated wicked (2 Sam. 23:6); sons of Belial, i.e., wicked men (Deut. 13:13; Judg. 19:22; 20:13; 1 Sam. 1:16; 2:12; 10:27; 25:17, 25; 30:22; 2 Sam. 16:7; 20:1; 1 Kgs. 21:10, 13; 2 Chr. 13:7; 2 Cor. 6:15).

Belshazzar. Mentioned in Dan. 5:1–2 as son and successor of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, being the last reigning king before the conquest by Cyrus. He has been usually identified with Nabonidus, but we learn from recently discovered monuments that Nabonidus had a son Belshazzar (Bel-sana-usur), who was never king, but was prince-regent during his father's reign.

Belteshazzar. Name of Daniel (Dan. 1:7; 2:26; 4:8–19; 5:12; 10:1).

Ben. Heb. for son or son of. Hence, Ben-Abinadab, Reuben, Benjamin, Benhadad, etc.

Benaiah. The Lord hath built. (1) One of David's officers (2 Sam. 8:18; 23:20–23; 1 Chr. 11:22–25); opposed to Adonijah (1 Kgs. 1:8–44), and slays him, Joab, and Shimei (2:25–46; 4:4; 1 Chr. 18:17; 27:5–6). (2) One of David's mighty men (2 Sam. 23:30; 1 Chr. 11:31; 27:14); and many others.

Benhadad. Son (i.e., worshipper) of Hadad. There are three kings of Damascus of this name: (1) the ally of Asa (1 Kgs. 15:18–20; 2 Chr. 16:2–4); (2) at war with Ahab (1 Kgs. 20:1–34); besieges Samaria (2 Kgs. 6:24); death of (8:7–15); (3) son of Hazael (2 Kgs. 13:3); smitten thrice by Joash (13:25; Jer. 49:27; Amos 1:4).

Benjamin. Son of the right hand. (1) Son of Jacob and Rachel; his birth, Gen. 35:18; how brought to Egypt and treated by Joseph, chs. 42—45; blessing of, by Jacob, 49:27; by Moses, Deut. 33:12; border and cities, Josh. 18:11–28; 21:4, 17; Judg. 1:21. The Benjamites were a warlike race, and did great service in resisting the Philistine oppression. The tribe provided the first king in the person of Saul (1 Sam. 9:1). At the division of the kingdom Benjamin joined the northern tribes (1 Kgs. 12:21), but the nearness to Jerusalem seems to have caused Benjamin gradually to become part of the kingdom of Judah. The most distinguished Benjamite was the apostle Paul (Rom. 11:1). (2) 1 Chr. 7:10. (3) Ezra 10:32; Neh. 3:23; 12:34.

Benoni. Son of my sorrow, or of my strength. First name of Benjamin (Gen. 35:18).

Beryl. A precious stone, pale green in color. It was the first stone of the fourth row of the high priest's breastplate (Ex. 28:20), and the eighth stone in the foundation of the wall of the heavenly Jerusalem (Rev. 21:20).

Beth. Second letter of the Hebrew alphabet and a designation meaning house. Thus Bethany (house of the poor), Bethel (house of God), Bethlehem (house of bread), etc.

Bethabara. House of the ford. A place where John baptized in the Jordan River, the exact site of which is unknown today, although traditionally it is near Jericho. It was at this location that John baptized Jesus, beheld the Holy Ghost descend in the sign of a dove, and was interviewed by a delegation of priests and Levites from Jerusalem (John 1:19–34; 1 Ne. 10:7–10). Cf. JST John 1:34, which indicates that all of the above events were done at Bethabara, whereas the KJV leaves the matter in question.

Bethany. House of the poor. Village two miles from Jerusalem, on the southeast slope of Olivet; the home of Lazarus (John 11:1–18; 12:1) and of Simon (Mark 14:3); the village in which our Lord stayed during Holy Week (Matt. 21:17; Mark 11:11).

Bethel. House of God. (1) Formerly called Luz (Gen. 28:19), on the border between Benjamin and Ephraim, and one of the most sacred spots in Israel. Here Abraham built his altar on his first arrival in Canaan (Gen. 12:8; 13:3); here Jacob had his dream, set up a pillar, and gave the place its name (28:19). It was a sanctuary in the days of Samuel (1 Sam. 7:16; 10:3). Jeroboam selected it as one of the places in which to set up the calf worship (1 Kgs. 12:29 ff.; 2 Kgs. 10:29; Amos 7:13). (See also 1 Kgs. 13; 2 Kgs. 23:4, 15–30; Hosea 12:4). (2) Joshua 12:16; 1 Sam. 30:27.

Bethesda. House of mercy or house of grace. Pool at Jerusalem, having five porches or cloisters. It seems to have had medicinal properties, popularly attributed to the "troubling" of the waters by an angel (John 5:4). There was possibly an intermittent spring flowing into the pool, which produced a bubbling at the surface. It was here that Jesus healed a man who had been an invalid for 38 years.

Beth-horon. House of caves. The pass of Beth-horon was part of the vital road from Jerusalem to the sea. The lower end widens out into the valley of Ajalon. The area has seen many battles, including the defeat of the Amorites by Joshua assisted by a hailstorm (Josh. 10:8–11). See also 1 Sam. 13:18; 2 Chr. 25:13.

Bethlehem. House of bread. (1) Bethlehem-Judah, also called Ephrath (Gen. 35:19; 48:7), 5 miles south of Jerusalem (Judg. 17:7–10; 19:1–2, 18); Ruth and Boaz at Bethlehem, see Ruth; Samuel anoints David at Bethlehem (1 Sam. 16; 17:12, 15; 20:6, 28; 2 Sam. 2:32); well of Bethlehem (2 Sam. 23:13–17, 24; 1 Chr. 2:51, 54; 4:4; 11:15–19, 26; 2 Chr. 11:6; Ezra 2:21; Neh. 7:26; Jer. 41:17); Christ's birthplace (Matt. 2:1–8; cf. Micah 5:2; Luke 2:4, 15; John 7:42); Herod slays children at Bethlehem (Matt. 2:16). (2) In Zebulun (Josh. 19:15; Judg. 12:8, 10).

Bethphage. House of figs. A village or district near Bethany to which Jesus sent disciples to obtain a donkey on which he could ride in the triumphal entry into Jerusalem (Matt. 21:1; Mark 11:1; Luke 19:29). Its site has never been exactly determined, but it is near the Mount of Olives and the road from Jericho.

Bethsaida. House of fish, or house of fishers. Probably there are two places of this name mentioned in the N.T. The older city was on the northeast end of the sea of Galilee, near Capernaum, and was the home of Peter, Andrew, and Philip (John 1:44; 12:21). For his capital, Philip the Tetrarch built a city that he called Bethsaida-Julias, after Julia, daughter of Caesar Augustus. The rebuilt portion was north of the older city and apparently nearer the place where Jesus fed the 5,000 (Mark 6:45; Luke 9:10) and healed a blind man (Mark 8:22). When Jesus denounced Bethsaida for its unbelief (Matt. 11:21; Luke 10:13) he probably referred to the pagan city (Philip's capital), not to the older city, composed largely of fishermen settled on the shore of the lake.

Beth-shan or Beth-shean. House of safety. Three miles from Jordan on the edge of the plain of Jezreel, on the road from Damascus to Egypt, and to Jerusalem via Shechem (Josh. 17:11, 16; Judg. 1:27; 1 Sam. 31:10, 12; 2 Sam. 21:12; 1 Kgs. 4:12; 1 Chr. 7:29). It was at Beth-shan that the dead bodies of Saul and three of his sons were fastened to the city wall (1 Sam. 31:10–13). It was afterwards known as Scythopolis, and in our Lord's time was one of the cities of Decapolis. Beth-shan has been an extremely fruitful archaeological site, containing Egyptian and Canaanite ruins of early Palestinian history.

Beth-shemesh. House of the sun. (1) Probably = Ir-shemesh (Josh. 19:41); a priestly city on the border of Judah (Josh. 15:10), about 12 miles southeast of Ekron; ark taken to Beth-shemesh (1 Sam. 6:9–20; see also 1 Kgs. 4:9; 2 Kgs. 14:11, 13; 1 Chr. 6:59; 2 Chr. 25:21, 23; 28:18). (2) For On, or Heliopolis, see Jer. 43:13; probably same as the "city of destruction" (Isa. 19:18). Two other cities: Josh. 19:22, 38; Judg. 1:33.

Bethuel. (1) Son of Nahor and Milcah, nephew of Abraham, and father of Laban and Rebekah (Gen. 22:22–23; 24:15, 24, 47, 50; 25:20; 28:2, 5). (2) A town (1 Chr. 4:30).

Beulah. Married. Name applied to the land of Israel as the spouse of God and of her own sons (Isa. 62:4–5).

Bible. By the Bible we mean the collection of writings that contain the records of divine revelation. The word itself is of Greek origin, being derived from ta biblia, "the books." In course of time "biblia," a neuter plural, was regarded as a feminine singular, and in that way "the books" came to be spoken of as "the book." By the word Bible therefore we must understand not a single book, but a divine library.

The Bible is the work of many prophets and inspired writers acting under the influence of the same Holy Spirit; but at the same time it came into being "in many parts and in many modes," by a gradual growth extending over many centuries, and we can see in the books themselves evidence of the varied conditions of time and place and thought under which they were composed.

In the New Testament we find the Jewish sacred books described as "the scriptures," e.g., Matt. 22:29; John 5:39; "the holy scriptures," Rom. 1:2; 2 Tim. 3:15; cf. Rom. 15:4.

Structure of the Bible. The Christian Bible has two great divisions, familiarly known as the Old and New Testaments. The O.T. consists of the canon of scriptures current among the Jews of Palestine in our Lord's time, and received on that account in its entirety by the Christian Church. The N.T. contains writings belonging to the Apostolic age, selected by the Church and regarded as having the same sanctity and authority as the Jewish scriptures. (For an account of the way in which these two collections of sacred writings were gradually made, see Canon.) The books of the O.T. are drawn from a national literature extending over many centuries and were written almost entirely in Hebrew, while the books of the N.T. are the work of a single generation and were written in Greek (with the possible exception of the Gospels of Matthew and John, which were probably written originally in Aramaic).

With regard to the word testament, the Greek word diatheke, of which testament is a translation, meant in classical Greek an arrangement, and therefore sometimes a will or testament, as in an arrangement for disposal of a person's property after his death. In the O.T. the word testament represents a Hebrew word meaning covenant. The Old Covenant is the law that was given to Moses. The New Covenant is the gospel of Jesus Christ. The title Old Testament is a misnomer since all the prophets, beginning with Adam, had the fullness of the gospel of Christ, with its ordinances and blessings. However, a lesser law was given to Moses for the children of Israel (see Law of Moses). When the Savior came in the meridian of time, he restored the gospel to the Jews in Palestine. Since they had strayed, even from the law of Moses, it was a new covenant to them. Thus we have the record called the Old and the New Testaments.

In the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) the books were divided into three groups: the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings (or Hagiographa). See Luke 24:44. This arrangement was according to the Jews' evaluation of the importance of the books based on the identity of the author. The Bible used by the Christian world is based on a different arrangement of the Old Testament books and was set up by a Greek translation called Septuagint. In this case the books are classified according to subject matter, such as historical, poetical, and prophetical.

The books of the New Testament have varied in sequence somewhat through the centuries but are generally in this order: the four Gospels and Acts, being primarily historical; the epistles of Paul (arranged according to length, except Hebrews); the general epistles of James, Peter, John, and Jude; and the Apocalypse or Revelation of John.

The Bible used by most non-Catholic churches today has 66 books—39 in the O.T. and 27 in the N.T. The books called Apocrypha have generally not been printed in the non-Catholic Bibles in the past century, although in recent years these books have been gaining in popularity. (See Apocrypha.)

Preservation of the Text of the O.T. The original language of most of the O.T. is Hebrew, but a few portions (Dan. 2:4—7:28; Ezra 4:8—6:18; 7:12–26; Jer. 10:11) were written in what is popularly called Chaldee, but more correctly Aramaic. The direct evidence for the text of the O.T. is of three kinds: Hebrew mss., ancient versions, and quotations in the Talmud and other ancient Jewish writings. The mss. are of two kinds: (1) synagogue rolls, about which the Talmud gives elaborate rules as to the nature of the skins and fastenings, the number of columns in each, the size of each column and title; these were written without vowel points or accents; (2) mss. for private use, in book form of various sizes, the vowel points being inserted, and a commentary generally provided in the margin.

If we had only Hebrew mss. we might conclude that the text of the O.T. has been the same always and everywhere. But the existence of the Greek Version called the Septuagint and the Samaritan Pentateuch (see Samaritans) proves that this is by no means the case. They differ materially from the Masoretic text, and in some cases have no doubt preserved older and truer readings; but it is most difficult in many cases to decide to which reading the preference should be given. The close agreement among the different Hebrew mss. (other than the Samaritan Pentateuch) is accounted for by the fact that soon after the destruction of Jerusalem (A.D. 70) much labor was bestowed upon the Hebrew text by the scholars who formed the Jewish School at Tiberias. One form of text was agreed upon, afterwards called the Masoretic text. Mss. that differed materially from this were destroyed, and the utmost care was taken to prevent any other readings from obtaining currency. The English KJV follows the Masoretic text except in a very few passages.

The Dead Sea Scrolls, some of which are believed to be as early as the 2nd century B.C., give evidence that the O.T. text was corrupted at least by that time.

Preservation of the Text of the N.T. In trying to decide what were the actual words written by the apostles and other writers we have the evidence of (1) Greek mss., (2) translations made from Greek into other languages; (3) quotations by early Church writers.

(1) A Greek ms. is called an Uncial if it is written entirely in capital letters, and a Cursive if written in smaller letters and a running hand. Uncials are denoted for purposes of reference by capital letters and are relatively few in number, there being less than 70 known Uncial mss., only 21 of which are at all complete. Cursive mss. are very numerous, being in the thousands, and are denoted by numbers. These are of later date than the Uncials and are of less importance as evidence of the original text.

(2) The most important of the early versions of the N.T. are (a) the Latin, including the Old Latin which belongs to the 2nd century, and the Vulgate, which was a Revised Latin text made by Jerome in the 4th century; (b) the Syriac, of which there are three important forms: the Old Syriac, the Peshitto, and the Philoxenian; (c) the Egyptian or Coptic, including the Memphitic or Boheiric, the Sahidic or Thebaic, and the Bashmuric or Fayumic, these three versions being made in Lower, Upper, and Middle Egypt respectively.

(3) Quotations by early Christian writers are sometimes of much value as indicating the text of the N.T., which they were accustomed to use; but this evidence requires using carefully, for authors do not always take pains to quote correctly.

Such are the biblical materials at one's disposal for the purpose of deciding what was the original sense of the text of the Old and New Testaments. However, latter-day revelation, in the form of the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants, the Pearl of Great Price, and also the teachings of Joseph Smith (through his translation of the Bible and otherwise), offer much evidence and many helpful suggestions about biblical interpretation and original content. These latter-day sources are indispensable to the student who wishes to obtain the clearest and most complete understanding of what the ancient prophets and apostles have written.

With the discovery of more ancient mss. not available to the King James translators, many translations of the Bible have been produced since 1900 by Bible scholars. However, based on the doctrinal clarity of latter-day revelation given to Joseph Smith, the Church has held to the King James Version as being doctrinally more accurate than these recent versions. The newer versions are in many instances easier to read, but are in some passages doctrinally weaker in their presentation of the gospel. Therefore, the King James Version remains the principal Bible of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

The position of the Church regarding the Bible is that it contains the word of God as far as it is translated correctly (A of F 8). Joseph Smith taught that "many important points touching the salvation of men, had been taken from the Bible, or lost before it was compiled." He also said that the Bible was correct as "it came from the pen of the original writers," but that "ignorant translators, careless transcribers, or designing and corrupt priests have committed many errors." (HC 1:245; 6:57.) The Church reveres and respects the Bible, but recognizes that it is not a complete nor entirely accurate record, and affirms also that the Lord has given additional revelation through his prophets in the last days that sustains, supports, and verifies the biblical account of God's dealings with mankind.

Bible, English. The first attempts to translate the Bible into the English language were made in the 8th century. The Venerable Bede, who died at Jarrow in 735, was engaged on his translation of John's Gospel up to the very moment of his death. There are also in existence translations of the Psalms by Aldhelm, Bishop of Sherborne (d. 709), and King Alfred (d. 900). After the Norman conquest further attempts were made, but the first English Version of the whole Bible is associated with the name of John Wycliffe. There were two editions of this version, beginning in 1382. These versions were made from the Latin. They include all the canonical books and almost all the apocryphal books that are usually found in English Bibles. The work was circulated far and wide. The honor of making the first translation of the Bible into English from the languages in which it was originally written belongs to William Tindale, born about 1490. He studied first at Oxford and then at Cambridge, where Erasmus was then lecturing. Erasmus was the editor of the first printed edition of the Greek N.T., published in 1516. In 1525 we find Tindale at Cologne, engaged in printing a quarto edition of the N.T. in English translated from Erasmus's edition of the Greek text. When about ten sheets were printed his plan was discovered, and an interdict was placed on the work. On this Tindale fled to Worms, carrying with him the sheets already printed, and there published an octavo edition of 3,000 copies. A fragment of one of the sheets printed at Cologne is now in the British Museum. A complete copy of the Worms edition is preserved at the Baptist College, Bristol. They were proscribed by the authorities of the Church of England and copies were burned when discovered. Tindale was still engaged on his translation of the O.T. when he was put to death for heresy in 1536.

In 1530 Henry VIII promised the English people that they would have the N.T. in their own tongue and in 1534 the Convocation petitioned for a translation of the whole Bible.

In 1535 Miles Coverdale issued, with the king's permission, the first complete English Bible. It was printed at Antwerp, the translation being made, as the title page tells us, "out of Douche (i.e., German) and Latin." In 1537 Thomas Matthew (whose real name was John Rogers) issued, also with the king's license, an edition that followed Tindale's as regards the N.T. and half the O.T., the remainder being taken from Coverdale's. A copy of this Bible was ordered by Henry VIII "to be set up in churches." In April 1539 appeared the first edition of the Great Bible (also known as Cranmer's, the Preface added in 1540 being written by him). On the title page is an elaborate engraving, which represents the king giving the word of God to the clergy, and, through Thomas Cromwell, to the laity of his kingdom, amid the great joy of his subjects. The Bible is here described as "truly translated after the verity of the Hebrew and Greek texts by the diligent study of divers excellent learned men."

The accession of Mary I, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, threatened danger to all who were closely identified with the translation of the Bible into English. Coverdale narrowly escaped with his life; Cranmer and Rogers were brought to the stake. Many refugees found their way to Geneva, the city of Calvin. Here appeared in 1560, after Mary's death, the Genevan Bible, of which 150 editions were published in England and Scotland between 1560 and 1616. It at once became popular from its use of Roman type, its division of the text into verses, and its copious notes, explanatory and controversial. This version is familiarly known as the Breeches Bible, from the rendering in Gen. 3:7. Its strong Puritan flavor made it distasteful to many English churchmen, and accordingly Archbishop Parker devised a plan for the revision of the Great Bible by the joint labor of a number of learned men, mostly bishops. The revisers were instructed to follow "the common English translation used in the churches," unless alteration were necessary, and to avoid bitter and controversial notes. In three or four years the Bishops' Bible was completed, and was presented to Queen Elizabeth I in 1568. It was regarded as the official English Church Bible. It was used in public worship, but otherwise had no great circulation. It was unfortunately printed very carelessly. Some years later English Roman Catholics issued at Douai (France) a version of the O.T. and at Rheims (France) a version of the N.T. Modern editions of the Douai version have borrowed many renderings from the Authorized Version (KJV).

At the Hampton Court Conference (London) held in 1604, soon after the accession of James I, the Puritan party asked for a new translation, to which the king agreed and gave an outline of a plan for a new version, now known as the Authorized Version. The work was to be assigned to the universities; the translation was to be then reviewed by the bishops and chief learned of the Church, presented to the Privy Council, and ratified by the king.

In 1607 six companies were appointed, consisting in all of 54 members, the meetings being held at Oxford, Cambridge, and Westminster. Of the rules laid down the following were the most important: the Bishops' Bible was to be followed, and "as little altered as the truth of the original will permit"; the translations of Tindale, Matthew, Coverdale, Whitchurch (i.e., the Great Bible), and Geneva were to be used when they agreed better with the text than the Bishops' Bible; the old ecclesiastical words (church, etc.) were to be retained; no marginal notes were to be affixed unless for necessary explanation of some Hebrew or Greek words. The new translation was published in 1611. The familiar dedication to the king, and also a long preface, ably setting forth the principles and aims of the work (unfortunately omitted by most modern editions), are said to have been written by Dr. Miles Smith, afterwards Bishop of Gloucester. The words on the title page "appointed to be read in churches" would seem to imply express authorization; but we have no evidence that the book ever received formal sanction. There was at first some reluctance to adopt it, but in course of time its own merits enabled it to supplant all other existing English translations.

Bilhah. Rachel's handmaid and wife of Jacob; the mother of Dan and Naphtali (Gen. 29:29; 30:3–7; 35:22, 25; 37:2; 46:25; 1 Chr. 7:13).

Birthright. Under the patriarchal order, the right or inheritance of the firstborn is known as birthright. This generally included a land inheritance as well as the authority to preside. The firstborn of flocks and of human families was considered as belonging to the Lord, and was expected to be dedicated to him. This dedication could be either literal or by the payment of redemption money (Ex. 13:11–16).

From time to time certain prerogatives, opportunities, and blessings have attended those who were born of a particular lineage. Thus the office of high priest (of the Aaronic order) and the office of the patriarch to the Church (in the Melchizedek Priesthood) are hereditary in nature. Lineage alone does not guarantee the blessings or spiritual power of the office, but the opportunities are offered to the firstborn of the selected lineage. There are several instances in the scriptures of the one who was the firstborn losing his birthright because of unrighteousness, and his office being given to another; such is the case with Esau (Gen. 25:24–34; 27), and Reuben (1 Chr. 5:1–2; Jer. 31:9).

See also Firstborn.

Bishop. Greek episkopos, meaning "overseer," an office or position of responsibility. Hence, Jesus is called the "Bishop of your souls" (1 Pet. 2:21–25). Judas is also spoken of as having a "bishoprick," reflecting the fact that the Twelve are overseers (Acts 1:20; D&C 114:1–2).

Bishop is also an ordained office in the Aaronic Priesthood (D&C 20:67), and a bishop is a common judge in Israel (D&C 107:74). The desirable qualifications of a bishop are listed in 1 Tim. 3:1–7; Titus 1:7–9. See also Ministry.

Bitter herbs. Eaten by the Israelites at the seder or home passover meal, to remind them of the bitterness of Egyptian bondage prior to the exodus (Ex. 12:8; Num. 9:11). The herbs included watercress, radishes, endive, horseradish.

Bittern. Mentioned as a bird or animal characteristic of desolate places (Isa. 14:23; 34:11; Zeph. 2:13–14).

Blasphemy. Generally denotes contemptuous speech concerning God, or concerning something that stands in a sacred relation toward God, such as his temple, his law, or his prophet. Our Lord was on several different occasions charged by the Jews with speaking blasphemy, because he claimed the right to forgive sins (Matt. 9:3; Luke 5:21), because he called himself Son of God (John 10:22–36), and because he said they would see him "sitting at the right hand of power, and coming in the clouds of heaven" (Matt. 26:64–65). These charges would have been true if he had not actually been all that he said he was. The charge brought against him by the false witnesses at the trial before the Sanhedrin (Matt. 26:59–61; John 19:7) was one of blasphemy against God's temple. Our Lord's apostles, on the other hand, regarded the behavior of the Jews toward him and toward themselves as blasphemy (Matt. 27:39; Luke 22:65; 23:39; Acts 13:45; 18:6; 26:11). A false accusation of blasphemy was also brought against Naboth (1 Kgs. 21:9–13), and against Stephen (Acts 6:11).

The punishment for willful and intentional blasphemy was death by stoning (Lev. 24:11–16; cf. John 10:31–33; Acts 7:58). Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, which is willfully denying Christ after having received a perfect knowledge of him from the Holy Ghost, is the unforgivable sin (Matt. 12:31–32; Mark 3:28–29; D&C 132:27).

Blindness. A common affliction in the Middle East in Bible times. Several types of blindness are spoken of. One type resulted as a consequence of old age, as with Isaac, Eli, and Ahijah (Gen. 27:1; 1 Sam. 3:2; 1 Kgs. 14:4). The bright glare of the sun was no doubt a cause of blindness, as was also infection or disease. There are many instances of Jesus healing the blind. Indeed, part of his mission as foretold by Isaiah included "recovering of sight to the blind" (Luke 4:18–22; cf. Isa. 61:1–2, Septuagint). Examples of Jesus curing physical blindness are recorded in Matt. 9:27–31; 12:22 ff.; 20:30–34; Mark 8:22–25; 10:46–52; Luke 7:21; John 9:1–41. In addition to the healing of physical blindness, the mission of Jesus included curing blindness to the things of the spirit. He made an application of this in John 9:5 when, in conjunction with healing the man born blind, he declared that he (Jesus) was "the light of the world." He also used the occasion to remind the Pharisees of their spiritual blindness (John 9:39–41). The curing of spiritual blindness is also spoken of in Isa. 9:2; 29:18; 35:5; 42:18–21; and 43:8; cf. Rom. 11:25; Eph. 4:18. See also 2 Ne. 9:31–32; D&C 58:15.

Blindness is also used in the Bible as a type of curse or punishment perhaps with some vivid symbolism of its spiritual counterpart. Examples of this are the men of Sodom (Gen. 19:11), the Syrian army (2 Kgs. 6:18), and Elymas (Acts 13:11). Paul was struck blind for three days, following his vision of the Lord on the road to Damascus (Acts 9:1–18).

There is evidence that some of the Jews thought blindness was always the result of sin, as in John 9:1–2, 34, but Jesus made it clear that physical impairment may be due to other causes, and is not necessarily due to sin.

Blood. Regarded by the Israelites as the seat of the life or vital energy of all flesh (Lev. 17:10–14). In O.T. times blood was forbidden as food (Gen. 9:4; Lev. 3:17; 7:26–27; 19:26; Deut. 12:16, 23; 15:23; 1 Sam. 14:32–34), which restriction was continued in the Church in N.T. times, at the Jerusalem conference (Acts 15:20–29). The atoning power of a sacrifice was in the blood because it was regarded as containing the life of the animal and because the sacrifice was a type of the great sacrifice who is Jesus Christ (Lev. 17:11; Heb. 9:22). The scripture says that "almost all things are by the law purged with blood; and without shedding of blood is no remission" (Heb. 9:22). Jesus worked out a perfect atonement by the shedding of his own blood (1 Jn. 1:7; Rev. 5:9–10; Mosiah 3:16–19; 3 Ne. 27:19–21; D&C 45:4; 76:69). Joseph Smith, as have many other prophets, sealed his testimony with his blood that the righteous might be honored and the wicked might be condemned (Rev. 6:9–10; D&C 135:6–7; 136:39).

Often a covenant was sealed with blood (Gen. 15:9–18; Ex. 24:8; Zech. 9:11; Matt. 26:28; Heb. 10:29; 13:20).

Boanerges. Sons of thunder. Surname given by our Lord to James and John, sons of Zebedee, probably on account of the intensity of their character (Mark 3:17; cf. Mark 9:38; 10:37; Luke 9:54).

Boaz. In him is might, or splendor. (1) See Ruth. (2) Name of a pillar in Solomon's Temple (1 Kgs. 7:21).

Book of Life. Spoken of in Philip. 4:3; Rev. 3:5; 13:8; 17:8; 20:12; 21:27; 22:19; cf. Dan. 12:1–4; Luke 10:20. In one sense the book of life is the sum total of one's thoughts and actions—the record of his life. However, the scriptures indicate that a heavenly record is kept of the faithful, whose names are recorded, as well as an account of their righteous deeds (D&C 88:2; 128:7).

Bottles. Generally made of skins of animals; the head and legs being cut off, the skin was removed from the body without further cutting, and was then tanned by means of oak-bark. If wine fermented in a bottle of this kind, it would stretch the skin to such an extent that it could never be used for the purpose a second time; hence the lesson drawn by our Lord in Matt. 9:17; Mark 2:22; Luke 5:37; cf. Job 32:19.

Brazen Serpent. See Serpent, Brazen.

Breastplate. (1) The front part of a soldier's dress, worn for protection. In this sense Isaiah and Paul spoke of a "breastplate of righteousness," which all saints should possess, protecting the vital organs against the evil things of life (Isa. 59:17; Eph. 6:14). (2) The high priest in the law of Moses wore a breastplate as part of his sacred attire. This was called the "breastplate of judgment" (Ex. 28:13–30; 39:8–21). It was made of linen, very colorfully arranged, bearing 12 precious stones and the Urim and Thummim. Other references to a breastplate are found in 1 Thes. 5:8; Rev. 9:9; cf. D&C 17:1; JS-H 1:35, 42, 52.

Brethren of the Lord. A title given to James, Joses, Simon, and Judas (Matt. 13:55; cf. Matt. 12:46; Mark 6:3; Luke 8:19; John 2:12; 7:3; Acts 1:14; 1 Cor. 9:5; Gal. 1:19). They were children of Joseph and Mary, born after Jesus' birth. Matt. 13:56 shows that there were also sisters. The number of girls is not specified, but the Greek text makes it clear that there were more than two. Since the exact number is not known, this is presented in the KJV as "all his sisters."

Bride, Bridegroom, Bridegroom's Friend. See Marriage.

Brigandine. A sort of coat of mail, or corselet (Jer. 46:4; 51:3).

Brimstone, or sulphur. Present in most of the hot springs of Palestine; mentioned in the account of the destruction of the Cities of the Plain, and hence symbolic of God's anger (Deut. 29:23; Ps. 11:6; Isa. 34:9).

Bruit. Report or rumor (Jer. 10:22; Nahum 3:19).

Buckler. A shield. Used literally in 1 Chr. 5:18; metaphorically in 2 Sam. 22:31; Ps. 18:30.

Bul. The 8th month. See Calendar.

Burial. According to Jewish custom, after death the body was washed, covered with spices, and wound round and round with long cloths of linen or other material. The relatives at once gathered to the house of mourning, and so too did the hired minstrels and "such as were skilful of lamentation," but the time allowed for this was short, for in all ordinary cases, except that of a parent, the burial took place, if possible, on the same day. The body was laid without coffin on a bier, and carried out beyond the town walls to the place of burial, which was either a public cemetery or, where circumstances allowed, in the private grounds of the family. The women often led the procession; hence our Lord could speak to the widow of Nain before he stopped the bearers of her son. It was the office of the hired mourners to express sorrow by music, praises of the dead, loud wailings, with other outward signs of woe, such as beating of the breast and rending of the garments. This excessive display and promotion of grief was evidently displeasing to Jesus, who in the case of the death of Jairus's daughter put all the mourners out of the house because they made such a "tumult" (Matt. 9:23–25; Mark 5:37–42; Luke 8:52–56). All who met the funeral were expected to join the procession. As regards the final disposal of the body, the Jews abhorred the idea of cremation, and either buried it in the ground or in a rockhewn tomb. The tomb was visited by the friends for at least the first three days. Tombs were carefully marked and generally kept whitewashed in order that people might not be defiled by walking over them unawares (cf. Matt. 23:27; Luke 11:44).

Burning Bush. A bush in which the Lord appeared to Moses when he gave him his commission to bring Israel out of Egypt (Ex. 3:2–4). Although the bush burned, it was not consumed, and this circumstance caught Moses' attention. The event was referred to by Jesus in speaking to the Sadducees (Mark 12:26; Luke 20:37). Stephen also makes mention of it (Acts 7:30). In latter-day revelation the experience is verified in Moses 1:17.

Burnt Offering. See Sacrifices.

By and by. An English term that in 1611 meant immediately. However, in common usage today it has come to mean nearly the opposite. It occurs in Matt. 13:21, in the parable of the sower; in Mark 6:25, in the account of the beheading of John the Baptist; and in Luke 21:9, in Jesus' explanation of events connected with the destruction of Jerusalem. In each case a proper recognition of the term is necessary in order to correctly understand the narrative. See also Luke 17:7.

Cab. A measure, a little less than two quarts (2 Kgs. 6:25).

Caesar. The title by which a Roman emperor was known. The emperors during the time covered by the N.T., with the dates of their accessions, were as follows: Augustus, 31 B.C.; Tiberius, A.D. 14; Caligula, A.D. 37; Claudius A.D. 41; Nero, A.D. 54. The chief occasions on which the imperial name is mentioned are (1) when a question was put to our Lord as to the duty of paying tribute (Matt. 22:17; Mark 12:14; Luke 20:22); (2) at his trial before Pilate, when the charge was disloyalty to Caesar (John 19:12; cf. Acts 17:7); (3) the famine in the reign of Claudius, A.D. 47 (Acts 11:28), and his expulsion of Jews from Rome, about A.D. 50 (Acts 18:2); (4) at Paul's trial before Festus, when he claimed his right as a Roman citizen to be tried in the imperial court (Acts 25:11); (5) reference made by Paul to Christians who were members of Caesar's household (Philip. 4:22).

Caesarea. An important seaport town of Palestine, on the main road from Tyre to Egypt, 33 miles north of Joppa, and about 60 miles from Jerusalem. Built by Herod the Great, it was the official residence of Festus, Felix, and other Roman procurators of Judaea (Acts 23:23, 33; 25:1–13). Philip worked in Caesarea (Acts 8:40; 21:8, 16). It was there that Cornelius, the gentile centurion, was baptized by Peter (Acts 10:1, 24; 11:11), and that Herod Agrippa died (Acts 12:23). Caesarea is also frequently mentioned in connection with Paul's journeys (Acts 9:30; 18:22; 21:8, 16; 23:23, 33; 25:1, 4, 6, 13).

Caesarea Philippi. A town near the source of the Jordan, at the foot of Mount Hermon, rebuilt and enlarged by Philip, tetrarch of Trachonitis. The northern most point of our Lord's journeyings, it was the scene of Peter's testimony of the Lord's Messiahship and divine Sonship (Matt. 16:13; Mark 8:27).

Caiaphas. High priest from A.D. 18 to A.D. 36; son-in-law of Annas, high priest A.D. 7–14. He belonged to the Sadducee party and took an active part in the attack made upon our Lord and his disciples (Matt. 26:3, 57; Luke 3:2; John 11:49; 18:13–14, 24, 28; Acts 4:6).

Cain. A son of Adam and Eve who slew his younger brother Abel over jealousy and greed (Gen. 4:1–16). Some of his descendants were skilled in the use of the harp and organ and in working with brass and iron (Gen. 4:17–25). Due to the incompleteness of the biblical record, many have regarded Cain as the eldest son of Adam. However, latter-day revelation tells us that Adam and Eve had many sons and daughters before Cain was born (Moses 5:1–3, 16–18). He married one of his brothers' daughters (Moses 5:28).

Cain's offering was rejected by the Lord, probably for several reasons, including the fact that it was not done in faith nor in the prescribed and revealed manner (cf. Moses 5:5–8 with Gen. 4:3–5). He entered into an unholy covenant with Satan, by which he became known as Master Mahan, or "master of this great secret," and by which he could "murder and get gain" (Moses 5:29–31). A mark was set upon him by which he could be distinguished from the other children of Adam (Gen. 4:15; Moses 5:38–41). Cain and his descendants lived separately from the other descendants of Adam (Moses 7:22).

Cain is mentioned frequently in the scriptures, including Heb. 11:4; 1 Jn. 3:12; Jude 1:11; Hel. 6:27; Ether 8:15; Moses 5–7; cf. D&C 84:16.

Caleb. Son of Jephunneh, of the tribe of Judah; one of the princes or heads of tribes sent by Moses to search the land of Canaan in the second year after the exodus. He and Joshua alone brought back a true report (Num. 13:6, 30; 14:6–38); they alone of all the people who left Egypt survived the 40 years in the wilderness (Num. 26:65; 32:12; Deut. 1:36). After the entrance into Canaan, Caleb obtained Hebron (Josh. 14:6–14; 15:13–19; 21:12; Judg. 1:12–15, 20; 3:9); this district was still in the possession of his family in the time of David (1 Sam. 25:3; 30:14).

Calendar. With the ancient Israelites the first day of a new moon was the first day of a new month, so that a month would consist of either 29 or 30 days. In the O.T. the months are not usually named, but simply numbered; they spoke of "the second month" and so on. The later Jews called their months by names which they got from Babylon: (1) Nisan, (2) Iyar, (3) Siwan, (4) Tammuz, (5) Ab, (6) Elul, (7) Tishri, (8) Markheshwan, (9) Kislew, (10) Tebeth, (11) Shebat, (12) Adar. To these was added, when necessary, an intercalary month, called 2nd Adar. With the later Jews the civil year began on the 1st of Tishri. Besides these Babylonian names we find in the O.T. four names of months that were in use among the Jews before the Exile: Abib ("harvest month," Ex. 13:4; 23:15; 34:18; Deut. 16:1) which corresponded to the later Nisan; and Ziw (or Zif, 1 Kgs. 6:1, 37); Ethanim (1 Kgs. 8:2); and Bul (1 Kgs. 6:38), which are stated to be the second, seventh, and eighth month respectively.

The day among the Hebrews was reckoned from sunset to sunset (Lev. 23:32). In the O.T. no divisions of the day are mentioned, except the natural periods of morning, noon, and evening. The night was divided into three watches (Judg. 7:19). In later times the number of night-watches was increased to four (Matt. 14:25; Mark 6:48), in accordance with Greek and Roman custom. The hours of the day were usually counted from sunrise, the hours of the night from sunset.

Calvary. A skull. The name by which the KJV (Luke 23:33) denotes the place where our Lord was crucified. Calvary is merely an English form of the Latin word calvaria, which is itself a translation of the Hebrew word Golgotha, a skull. The popular expression "Mount Calvary" is not warranted by any statement in the Gospels. There is no mention of a mount in any of the narratives of the crucifixion. See Golgotha.

Calves, golden, worship of. The form that Israelite idolatry took in the wilderness (Ex. 32:4; Deut. 9:12–21), and later on under Jeroboam and his successors (1 Kgs. 12:28, 32–33; 2 Kgs. 10:29; 2 Chr. 11:15; 13:8; Hosea 8:5–6; 13:2). Under this symbol they professed to worship Jehovah, but such worship naturally soon degenerated into a worship of the image itself.

Camel. The Arabian, or one-humped, camel (dromedary) is the species mentioned in the Bible. Used for work and travel, it was valuable not only for its great speed, but also because it needs little grain or green food and can endure long desert journeys without taking on new water. In addition to transportation, the camel was valuable for milk, hides, fat, leather, and hair for weaving into cloth for garments (Mark 1:6) or rugs, and manure for fuel. It might be used for meat in emergencies, although the camel is listed as an unclean animal in Lev. 11:4. It is possible that the donkey was used for travel at an earlier date than the camel, and the early patriarchs may have traveled more by donkey than by camel. Some references to camels are 1 Sam. 30:17; 1 Kgs. 10:1 ff.; 2 Kgs. 8:9; Esth. 8:10; Job 1:3; Jer. 49:32; Matt. 19:24; 23:24.

Camel's hair. Camel's hair is clipped from the animal's neck, back, and hump and woven into a coarse, durable, rough, and often itchy clothlike material and used for clothing. The camel's hair garment worn by John the Baptist (Mark 1:6) was possibly used as part of his austerity to separate him from the soft raiment and gorgeous apparel of the kings' courts (Matt. 11:8; Luke 7:25) and from the Pharisees and Sadducees.

Cana of Galilee. A town within a few miles of Nazareth, exact site of which is uncertain; the scene of Christ's first miracle (John 2:1–11), as well as of a subsequent one (John 4:46–54), and the birthplace of Nathanael (John 21:2).

Canaan. The name of the fourth son of Ham (Gen. 9:22; 10:6); also used to denote the tribe inhabiting the lowland (hence the name) toward the Mediterranean coast of Palestine; sometimes as a general name for all the non-Israelite inhabitants of the country west of Jordan, called by the Greeks Phoenicians. The Hebrew and Phoenician languages were almost identical. As the Phoenicians were great traders, Canaanite came to denote merchant (Isa. 23:8; Ezek. 17:4; Hosea 12:7).

Canaanite. In the case of Matt. 10:4 and Mark 3:18, which refer to Simon, one of the Twelve, the word should be Cananaean rather than Canaanite; it has reference to his political attachments rather than his lineage or geographical point of origin. Simon is also called a Zelote in Luke 6:15 and Acts 1:13, Zelote probably having reference to the Zealots founded by Judas of Gamala, which sect was called the Cananaeans, and who openly opposed the census of Cyrenius. In other instances, Canaanite refers to land of origin or lineage through Canaan, son of Ham, as in Gen. 10:6–19; 12:5–6; Abr. 1:21.

Candlestick. (More properly menorah, or lampstand.) Made for the tabernacle (Ex. 25:31–37; 37:17–24), placed on the south side, opposite the table of shewbread. From the main vertical stem three pairs of branches extended, curving upward so that all seven lamps on the ends were at the same level. In Solomon's temple there were ten golden lampstands (1 Kgs. 7:49; 2 Chr. 4:7). In the temple of Zerubbabel there was a single lampstand (1 Macc. 1:21; 4:49), afterwards carried off by Titus from the Herodian temple, and said to have been finally placed (A.D. 533) in a Christian church in Jerusalem. The metaphor in 1 Kgs. 11:36, Ps. 18:28, and Rev. 2:5 refers to the eastern custom of keeping a lamp burning day and night.

Cankerworm. Sometimes rendered caterpillar by the KJV; a destructive locust, in the winged or larval state (Joel 1:4; 2:25).

Canon. A word of Greek origin, originally meaning "a rod for testing straightness," now used to denote the authoritative collection of the sacred books used by the true believers in Christ. In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the canonical books are called standard works. The history of the process by which the books of the Bible were collected and recognized as a sacred authority is almost hidden in obscurity. There are several legends extant and these may have some truth in them, but certainly are not complete or totally accurate. Though many of the details have not been preserved, we know that the servants of the Lord have been commanded to keep records even from the earliest times, and that those records have been revered by the faithful and handed down from generation to generation.

Much of the information we now have on this subject has come to us through latter-day revelation. For example, we learn that Adam was an intelligent being who could read and write and had a pure and perfect language. Sacred records were kept by him and handed down to succeeding patriarchs, even to Enoch and Abraham, who also added their own writings to the collection (Moses 6:3–6, 46; Abr. 1:31). Likewise Moses kept a record in his day (Moses 1:40–41). A collection of Old Testament documents and other writings was available in Jerusalem in 600 B.C., written upon plates of brass, and was obtained by Nephi from Laban (1 Ne. 4; 5:10–19).

The various Old Testament prophets wrote or dictated to scribes who wrote (such as Jeremiah to Baruch, cf. Jer. 36), and thus the sacred books were produced and collected.

In New Testament times the apostles and prophets kept records, giving an official testimony of the earthly ministry of the Savior and the progress and teachings of the Church. Many of the details, such as time and place involved in the production and the preservation of the records, are not available, but the general concept is clear that the servants of the Lord wrote what they knew to be true of Jesus. Thus came the Gospels. The epistles were primarily written to regulate affairs among the members of the Church.

With the multiplicity of true books, of both Old and New Testament origin, there was also a proliferation of false writings from apostates and from authors who for one reason or another wished to propagate some particular thesis. From time to time decisions needed to be made as to which books were authoritative and which were false. A council of Jewish scholars met for this purpose in Jamnia, or Javneh (near Joppa), in about A.D. 90, and some determinations were made as to what were the official and accepted books of the Jews' religion. This probably was a defensive reaction to the rise of Christian writings, and perhaps also from the fact that the Christians freely used the Jewish scriptures (O.T.) as well as the writings of the apostles and the early Christian leaders. It appears that the rabbis wanted to make clear the distinction between the two.

Councils were held in early Christianity to determine which of the writings were authoritative and which were heretical. Some good judgment was used, and many spurious books were rejected, while our present New Testament was preserved. Times of persecution also precipitated decisions as to which books were true and which false. If a Christian is forced by the Roman government to burn his books, he most likely will surrender those that are nonauthoritative and conceal the more valuable documents. In order to do this, he must know which are which.

No doubt many writings, of both Old and New Testament times, have been lost, and perhaps even willfully destroyed (see Lost Books). When the Church was in apostasy, whether before or after the time of Christ, some valuable writings were misjudged to be in error (because the judges lacked the truth) and so were discarded. Likewise some books of lesser value may have been judged to be good. In the main, however, sound guidelines were established that helped to preserve the authoritative books. Among these rules were the following: (1) Is it claimed that the document was written by a prophet or an apostle? (2) Is the content of the writing consistent with known and accepted doctrines of the faith? (3) Is the document already used and accepted in the Church? By application of these tests the books now contained in the Bible have been preserved.

Although the decisions were made in the past as to which writings are authoritative, that does not mean that the canon of scripture is complete and that no more can be added. True prophets and apostles will continue to receive new revelation, and from time to time the legal authorities of the Church will see fit to formally add to the collection of scripture.

Canticles. An alternative name for the Song of Solomon.

Capernaum. Village of Nahum. A town on the northern end of the Sea of Galilee, probably on the site now known as Tell-Hum. At the time of our Lord the district was one of the most prosperous and crowded in all Palestine. Here the Lord lived after the beginning of his ministry, so that Capernaum is called "his own city" (cf. Matt. 9:1 with Mark 2:1). It was the home of Peter and Andrew (Mark 1:29) and of Matthew (Matt. 9:9). Many of our Lord's miracles were worked here (Matt. 8:5, 14; 9:1; Luke 4:31–35, 38; 5:18; 7:1; Mark 1:21, 30; 2:1). In the synagogue at Capernaum was spoken the wonderful discourse found in John 6:59. Later the Lord upbraided the people of the place for their rejection of him (Matt. 11:23; Luke 10:15).

Cappadocia. The eastern district of Asia Minor, with Pontus on the north and Cilicia on the south (Acts 2:9; 1 Pet. 1:1). It became a Roman province in A.D. 17.

Captain of the Temple. (Luke 22:4; Acts 4:1; 5:24). Not a military officer, but one in charge of the priests and Levites who formed the temple police and kept watch by night (cf. 2 Kgs. 12:9; 25:18).

Captivities of the Israelites. (1) Of Israel: In 740 B.C. Tiglath-pileser carried away the trans-Jordanic tribes and the inhabitants of Galilee (1 Chr. 5:26; 2 Kgs. 15:29) to Assyria; in 721 B.C. Sargon II carried into captivity the rest of Israel (2 Kgs. 17:3), placing them at Halah, Habor, etc. (2 Kgs. 17:6). The cities of Samaria were then peopled with colonists from Babylon, Cuthah, etc. (2 Kgs. 17:24). The later history of the captive Israelites cannot be followed with certainty; some were merged in the heathen population, some returned to Palestine under the decree of Cyrus, and others remained in Babylon and helped to form the dispersion. They have come to be known as the lost tribes.

(2) Of Judah: In 701 B.C. Sennacherib carried into Assyria 200,150 captives from Jewish cities (2 Kgs. 18:13); in 597 B.C. and again in 586 B.C. there were large deportations under Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kgs. 24:14; 25:11; 2 Chr. 36:6–10; Jer. 52). A considerable number of Jews were left behind in Judaea (Jer. 40–43). Those in captivity were assured by the teaching of Ezekiel that the glory of the temple would again be restored. The captivity was brought to a close by the decree of Cyrus in 536 B.C. (Ezra 1:2), who permitted all worshippers of Jehovah to return and build the temple in Jerusalem. Only part of the people availed themselves of this permission; the rest remained behind and formed the dispersion.

The period of the captivity had a lasting effect upon the Jewish people. It put a stop to the old sin of idolatry; it was a time of great spiritual revival (Ezek. 36:24–28), a number of the Psalms being written during this period; and it led to a deepening reverence for the law of Moses, especially that part of it dealing with ritual observance.

Carbuncle. A precious stone of bright red color (Ex. 28:17; Isa. 54:12; Ezek. 28:13).

Carchemish. Fort of Chemosh, a town on the western bank of the higher part of the river Euphrates. It commanded the ford of the river on the high road from Assyria into Syria, and was the scene of an important battle (605 B.C.) between Nebuchadnezzar and Pharaoh-Necho (Jer. 46:2; 2 Chr. 35:20).

Carmel. Garden or park. (1) A hill, 1742 ft. high, forming the one headland of the coast of Palestine. It is chiefly known in connection with the history of Elijah and Elisha (1 Kgs. 18; 2 Kgs. 2:25; 4:25); also frequently mentioned by prophets (Isa. 33:9; 35:2; Jer. 46:18; 50:19; Amos 1:2; 9:3; Micah 7:14; Nahum 1:4). (2) A town in the hill country of Judah (Josh. 15:55; 1 Sam. 15:12); residence of Nabal (1 Sam. 25); and native place of David's wife Abigail (1 Sam. 27:3).

Carriage. Baggage, or anything carried, as in Judg. 18:21. Possibly a vessel or small instrument (1 Sam. 17:22). Something lifted up or borne (Isa. 10:28; 46:1; Acts 21:15).

Cassia. One of the ingredients in the anointing oil (Ex. 30:24), and an article of merchandise imported into Tyre by Greek merchants (Ezek. 27:19). There is another Hebrew word also rendered cassia (Ps. 45:8). Both Hebrew words denote aromatic plant products; the former is a cinnamon, while the latter may be Indian orris or costus.

Castor and Pollux. In Greek and Roman mythology, the twin sons of Jupiter (Zeus) and Leda. They formed the figurehead of the ship from Alexandria, in which Paul sailed from Melita to Puteoli (Acts 28:11).

Caul. (1) A net for the hair (Isa. 3:18). (2) A membrane surrounding the heart (Hosea 13:8).

Cedar. Generally denotes the cedar of Lebanon (1 Kgs. 6:9, 15; 7:3; Ezra 3:7); sometimes one of the junipers (Lev. 14:4; Num. 19:6); or a pinewood (Ezek. 27:5).

Cedron. The ravine below the eastern wall of Jerusalem (John 18:1). Called Kidron in the O.T. (2 Sam. 15:23; 1 Kgs. 2:37).

Censer. A metal vessel made to receive burning charcoal from the altar, and in which incense was sprinkled by a priest (Lev. 16:12; Num. 4:14; 1 Kgs. 7:50; 2 Chr. 26:18–19; Ezek. 8:11; Luke 1:9; Rev. 8:3–4). See also the account of Korah's rebellion, Num. 16.

Centurion. An officer of the Roman army, in command of a century, or company of 100 men, forming one-sixtieth part of a Roman legion. In N.T. times the legions were not up to their full strength, and a century varied from 50 to 100 men. At least five centurions are mentioned in the N.T., of which perhaps the best known is Cornelius (Acts 10:1–35). See also Matt. 8:8–10; 27:54; Mark 15:39; Luke 7:1–9; 23:47; Acts 27:1; 28:16.

Cephas. A stone. The Aramaic name (of which Petros is the corresponding Greek) given by our Lord to Simon, when he was called to be a disciple (John 1:42).

Chalcedony. A stone that formed one of the foundations of the heavenly Jerusalem seen by John in his vision (Rev. 21:19); probably equivalent to our copper emerald. The name is applied in modern mineralogy to a different stone, one of the varieties of quartz.

Chaldea. That portion of Babylonia which lay south and east of Babylon, though the name was sometimes used after the days of Jeremiah to denote the whole district lying between and adjoining the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. The Chaldeans (using the word in its wider sense) belonged to the same race as the Assyrians and spoke the same language. In Dan. 2:2, 10 the name is applied to a learned class in Babylon who made a special study of astrology.

Chamberlain. A private and confidential servant of an eastern king (2 Kgs. 23:11; Acts 12:20). The name is also translated "eunuch."

Charger. A dish or large plate (Num. 7:13; Ezra 1:9; Matt. 14:8; Mark 6:25).

Chariot. A vehicle, generally used for purposes of war (Ex. 14:7; Josh. 17:18; Judg. 1:19; 4:3; 1 Sam. 13:5). Up to the time of David the Israelites had few chariots (1 Sam. 8:11–12); in later times a regular force was maintained (2 Sam. 8:4; 1 Kgs. 10:26). The armies that fought against Israel also had chariots, such as the Syrians (2 Sam. 8:4; 2 Kgs. 8:21), the Assyrians (2 Kgs. 19:23), and the Persians (Isa. 22:6–7). The Israelite fighting chariot was probably after the Egyptian model, the plan of which is known from Egyptian paintings and reliefs still in existence.

Charity. The highest, noblest, strongest kind of love, not merely affection; the pure love of Christ. It is never used to denote alms or deeds of benevolence, although it may be a prompting motive (1 Cor. 8:1; 13:1–4, 8; 13; 14:1. Cf. Moro. 7:47).

Chebar, river of. A tributary of the Euphrates, position uncertain. On its banks lived many of the exiles carried from Judah by Nebuchadnezzar; here Ezekiel saw his earlier visions (Ezek. 1:1, 3; 3:15, 23; 10:15, 20, 22; 43:3).

Chedorlaomer. A king of Elam who, with certain princes of Babylonia, defeated and reduced to servitude the kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, and other neighboring cities (Gen. 14:1–17). Abraham marched against him in order to recover his nephew Lot, whom he had taken prisoner.

Chemosh. The god of Moab (1 Kgs. 11:7); also of Ammon (Judg. 11:24). Solomon built for him a high place on Mount Olivet (1 Kgs. 11:7), which Josiah destroyed (2 Kgs. 23:13). Chemosh was worshipped with human sacrifices (2 Kgs. 3:27). See also Moabite Stone.

Cherubim. Figures representing heavenly creatures, the exact form being unknown. They are found in the Holy of Holies, on the Mercy Seat of the Ark (Ex. 25:18, 22; 1 Kgs. 6:23–28; Heb. 9:5), and in the visions of Ezekiel (Ezek. 10; 11:22). In the account of the Fall, cherubim are represented as keeping "the way of the tree of life" (Gen. 3:24).

Chinnereth, -roth. (1) A fortified city in the tribe of Naphtali (Josh. 19:35). (2) The O.T. name of the Sea of Galilee (Num. 34:11; Deut. 3:17; Josh. 11:2; 12:3; 13:27; 1 Kgs. 15:20).

Chisleu or Kislew. The ninth month. See Calendar.

Chittim or Kittim. Son of Javan (Gen. 10:4; 1 Chr. 1:7). He gave his name to the island of Chittim, now called Cyprus (Num. 24:24; Isa. 23:1, 12; Jer. 2:10; cf. Ezek. 27:6; Dan. 11:30).

Chloe. A woman mentioned in 1 Cor. 1:11. "Those of Chloe," i.e., members of her household, had informed Paul of the divisions in the Corinthian Church.

Chorazin. A town of Galilee, on northern coast of the Sea of Galilee, in which some of our Lord's mighty works were done (of which no record is preserved), and which was rebuked for its unbelief (Matt. 11:21; Luke 10:13).

Christ. The anointed (Gk.) or Messiah (Heb.). Jesus, who is called Christ, is the firstborn of the Father in the spirit and the Only Begotten of the Father in the flesh. He is Jehovah, and was foreordained to his great calling in the Grand Councils before the world was. He was born of Mary at Bethlehem, lived a sinless life, and wrought out a perfect atonement for all mankind by the shedding of his blood and his death on the cross. He rose from the grave and brought to pass the bodily resurrection of every living thing and the salvation and exaltation of the faithful.

He is the greatest Being to be born on this earth—the perfect example—and all religious things should be done in his name. He is Lord of lords, King of kings, the Creator, the Savior, the God of the whole earth, the Captain of our salvation, the Bright and Morning Star. He is in all things, above all things, through all things, and round about all things; he is Alpha and Omega, the first and the last; his name is above every name, and is the only name under heaven by which we can be saved.

He will come again in power and glory to dwell on the earth, and will stand as Judge of all mankind at the last day. See also Anointed One; Christ, Names of; Jesus.

Christ, Names of. Names, titles, and concepts of the Lord Jesus in the O.T.: Seed of the woman, Gen. 3:15; Shiloh, Gen. 49:10; the Prophet, Deut. 18:15–16; Emmanuel, Isa. 7:14; 8:8; cf. Matt. 1:23; Wonderful, Counsellor, Mighty God, Isa. 9:6; Everlasting Father, 9:6; Prince of Peace, 9:6; Stem of Jesse, 11:1 (see D&C 113:1); Mighty One of Jacob, 60:16; Servant of the Lord, or of Jehovah, 42:1–7; 52:13–15; Zech. 3:8; Branch, Jer. 23:5; the Lord our Righteousness, Jer. 23:6; 33:16; Mal. 4:2; the Messiah, Dan. 9:25; the Messenger of the covenant, Mal. 3:1; Redeemer, Job 19:25; Isa. 59:20; 60:16; Holy One, Ps. 16:10; Holy One of Israel, Isa. 1:4; Blessed of God, Ps. 45:2.

Names, titles, and concepts of Jesus in the Gospels and Acts: The son of David, the son of Abraham, Matt. 1:1; son of David, 9:27; 12:23; 15:22; 20:30–31; 21:9, 15; Mark 10:47–48; 12:35; Luke 18:38–39; 20:41; the son of Mary, Mark 6:3; Joseph's son, Luke 4:22; John 1:45; 6:42; the carpenter's son, Matt. 13:55; the carpenter, Mark 6:3; Jesus of Galilee, Matt. 26:69; Jesus of Nazareth, 26:71; Mark 1:24; 10:47; 14:67; 16:6; Luke 4:34; 18:37; 24:19; John 1:45; 18:5, 7; 19:19; Acts 2:22; 3:6; 4:10; 6:14; 10:38; 22:8; 26:9; a Nazarene, Matt. 2:23; the beloved Son of God, Matt. 3:17; 17:5; Mark 9:7; Luke 3:22; the Son of the living God, Matt. 16:16; Son of the most high God, Mark 5:7; the Son of the Blessed, 14:61; Son of the Highest, Luke 1:32; God's holy child Jesus, Acts 4:27, 30; only begotten of the Father, John 1:14, 18; one with the Father, 10:30; the Lord's Christ, Luke 2:26; the Christ of God, 9:20; the chosen of God, 23:35; the Messias, John 1:41; 4:25; God's anointed, Acts 4:27; the Lamb of God, John 1:29, 36; a teacher come from God, 3:2; he that cometh in the name of the Lord, Matt. 21:9; Mark 11:9; the King that cometh in the name of the Lord, Luke 19:38; John 12:13; meek and lowly, Matt. 21:5; see Zech. 9:9; also Matt. 12:19; the prophet of Nazareth, Matt. 21:11; a prophet, John 4:19; 9:17; the prophet, 7:40; King of the Jews, Matt. 2:2; 27:11, 37; Mark 15:9, 12, 18, 26; Luke 23:3, 38; John 18:33, 39; 19:3, 14–15, 19, 21; Governor that shall rule Israel, Matt. 2:6; King of Israel, 27:42; Mark 15:32; John 1:49; 12:13; King of Sion, Matt. 21:5; John 12:15; Emmanuel, Matt. 1:23; the consolation of Israel, Luke 2:25; Savior of Israel, Acts 13:23; Savior, Matt. 1:21; Luke 2:11; Acts 5:31; 13:23; the Savior of the world, John 4:42; the Lord, Matt. 28:6; Mark 16:19–20; Luke 2:11; 22:61; 24:3, 34; John 11:2; 20:2, 18, 20, 25; Acts 2:36; 8:24–25, 39; 9:5–6, 10–11, 15, 17, 31, 35, 42; 10:48; 11:21, 23; 13:12, 48–49; 14:3, 23; 15:35; 16:10, 32; 18:8–9, 25; 20:19; 21:20; 22:10, 16; 23:11; the Lord Jesus, Luke 24:3; Acts 7:59; 8:16; 9:29; 11:17, 20; 15:11, 26; 16:31; 19:5, 10, 13, 17; 20:21, 24, 35; 21:13; 28:31; Lord of all, 10:36; Lord of the sabbath, Mark 2:28; Rabbi, John 1:38, 49; 3:2, 26; 6:25; Rabboni, 20:16; the Word, 1:1, 14; the Light, 1:7–8; the bread of life, 6:35, 41, 48; the living bread, 6:51; the light of the world, 8:12; 9:5; 12:46; the door of the sheep, 10:7, 9; the good shepherd, 10:11, 14; the resurrection and the life, 11:25; the way, the truth, and the life, 14:6; the true vine, 15:1; the vine, 15:5; the Holy One and the Just, Acts 3:14; the Just One, 7:52; 22:14; the Prince of Life, 3:15; a prince, 5:31; Judge of quick and dead, 10:42; a righteous man (by the centurion), Luke 23:47; that deceiver (by the Jews), Matt. 27:63; a sinner (by the Jews), John 9:24; a Samaritan (by the Jews), 8:48.

Names, titles, and concepts of Christ in the Epistles. A propitiation through faith, Rom. 3:25; 1 Jn. 2:2; the end of the law for righteousness, Rom. 10:4; the deliverer, 11:26; Lord both of dead and living, 14:9; a minister of the circumcision for the truth of God, 15:8; the power of God and the wisdom of God, 1 Cor. 1:24; wisdom, righteousness, sanctification, and redemption unto us, 1:30; he sanctifieth the people by his blood, Heb. 13:12; our passover, 1 Cor. 5:7; by whom are all things, and we by him, 8:6; by whom God made the worlds, Heb. 1:2; the spiritual rock, 1 Cor. 10:4; the head of every man, 11:3; cf. Eph. 4:15; captain of man's salvation, Heb. 2:10; propitiation for the sins of the whole world, 1 Jn. 2:2; 4:10; one body, 1 Cor. 12:12; the firstfruits of them that slept, 15:20, 23; the forerunner, Heb. 6:20; the Lord from heaven, 1 Cor. 15:47; not yea and nay, but in him was yea, 2 Cor. 1:19; the image of God, 4:4; the express image of God's person, Heb. 1:3; the only wise God our Savior, Jude 1:25; who knew no sin, 2 Cor. 5:21; Heb. 4:15; separate from sinners, 7:26; did no sin, 1 Pet. 2:22; blessed for evermore, 2 Cor. 11:31; consecrated for evermore, Heb. 7:28; who gave himself for our sins, Gal. 1:4; suffered for us, 1 Pet. 2:21; bare our sins in his own body, 2:24; 3:18; 4:1; the seed of Abraham, Gal. 3:16; Heb. 2:16; of the seed of David, 2 Tim. 2:8; made of a woman, made under the law, Gal. 4:4; our peace, Eph. 2:14; the chief cornerstone, Eph. 2:20; a living stone, disallowed of men, but chosen of God and precious, 1 Pet. 2:4, 7; an offering and sacrifice to God for a sweetsmelling savor, Eph. 5:2; foundation of the Church, 1 Cor. 3:11; the head of the Church, Eph. 5:23; the Savior of the body, 5:23; the Savior, Philip. 3:20; our Savior, 1 Tim. 2:3; 2 Tim. 1:10; Titus 2:10, 13; 3:6; Savior of the world, 1 Jn. 4:14; the hope of glory, Col. 1:27; who sitteth on the right hand of God, 3:1; Heb. 1:3; 10:12; 12:2; who is passed into the heavens, 4:14; 8:1; 9:24; 1 Pet. 3:22; our life, Col. 3:4; which delivereth us from the wrath to come, 1 Thes. 1:10; who died and rose again, 4:14; who was raised from the dead, 2 Tim. 2:8; who came into the world to save sinners, 1 Tim. 1:15; who gave himself for us, Titus 2:14; tasted death for every man, Heb. 2:9; the mediator between God and men, 1 Tim. 2:5; appears in the presence of God for us, Heb. 9:24; God manifest in the flesh, 1 Tim. 3:16; the great God, Titus 2:13; the brightness of God's glory, Heb. 1:3; in whom is salvation, 2 Tim. 2:10; author of eternal salvation, Heb. 5:9; hath obtained eternal redemption for us, 9:12; who shall judge the quick and dead, 2 Tim. 4:1; is ready to judge the quick and the dead, 1 Pet. 4:5; the righteous judge, 2 Tim. 4:8; heir of all things, Heb. 1:2; upholding all things by the word of his power, 1:3; by himself purged our sins, 1:3; put away sin by the sacrifice of himself, 9:26; his blood cleanseth from all sin, 1 Jn. 1:7; better than the angels, Heb. 1:4; made lower than the angels for the suffering of death, 2:7, 9; the first begotten, 1:6; crowned with glory and honour, 2:9; made higher than the heavens, 7:26; a merciful and faithful high priest, 2:17; apostle and high priest of our profession, 3:1; 4:14; 10:21; able to succor them that are tempted, 2:18; worthy of more glory than Moses, 3:3; tempted in all points as we are, 4:15; a priest for ever after the order of Melchisedec, 5:6; 6:20; hath an unchangeable priesthood, 7:24; learned obedience by the things which he suffered, 5:8; surety of a better testament, 7:22; mediator of a better covenant, 8:6; 12:24; mediator of the new testament, 9:15; able to save to the uttermost, 7:25; ever liveth to make intercession, 7:25; holy, harmless, undefiled, 7:26; a minister of the sanctuary and of the true tabernacle, 8:2; a high priest of good things to come,9:11; offered himself without spot, 9:14; a lamb without blemish and without spot, 1 Pet. 1:19; shall appear the second time without sin unto salvation, Heb. 9:23; he hath perfected forever them that are sanctified, 10:14; he hath consecrated a new and living way, 10:20; the author and finisher of our faith, 12:2; the same yesterday, today, and forever, 13:8; suffered without the gate, 13:12; the great shepherd of the sheep, 13:20; 1 Pet. 5:4; the shepherd and bishop of souls, 2:25; the Lord of glory, James 2:1; angels, authorities, and powers being made subject to him, 1 Pet. 3:22; left us an example, 2:21; the word of life, 1 Jn. 1:1; sent that we may live through him, 4:9; in him is eternal life, 5:11, 20; an advocate (Gk. Paraclete) with the Father, 2:1; the propitiation for our sins, 2:2; 4:10; he that came by water and blood, 5:6; hath given us understanding that we may know him that is true, 5:20.

Names, titles, and concepts of Christ in the Apocalypse. The faithful witness, Rev. 1:5; 3:14; the first begotten of the dead, 1:5; he that liveth and was dead, 1:18; 2:8; the prince of the kings of the earth, 1:5; Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, 1:8, 11; 21:6; 22:13; which is, and which was, and which is to come, 1:8; 4:8; 11:17; 16:5; the Almighty, 1:8; 4:8; 16:7; the first and the last, 1:17; 2:8; 22:13; he that is holy, he that is true, he that hath the key of David, 3:7; the Amen, 3:14; the beginning of the creation of God, 3:14; that liveth for ever and ever, 4:9; the Lion of the tribe of Judah, 5:5; the root of David, 5:5; root and offspring of David, 22:16; the Lamb, 5:6, 8, 12–13; 6:16; 7:9, 14, 17; 12:11; 14:1, 4, 10; 15:3; 17:14; 19:7, 9; 21:9, 14, 22, 27; 22:1, 3; King of kings, and Lord of lords, 17:14; 19:16; faithful and true, 19:11; the word of God, 19:13; the bright and morning star, 22:16.

Christians. A name first given to believers in Jesus Christ at Antioch in Syria, about A.D. 43 (Acts 11:26). It was perhaps given contemptuously, but was accepted by followers of Christ as a fit title. See 1 Pet. 4:16; Alma 46:15.

Christs, false. Matt. 24:4, 5, 24; Mark 13:21; Luke 21:8; John 5:43. See 1 Tim. 4:1–7; 2 Pet. 2; Jude 1:4–19. See also Antichrist.

Chronicles. The two Books of Chronicles counted as one in the Hebrew canon. They give a short history of events from the Creation down to the proclamation of Cyrus allowing the Jews to return to Palestine. The books contain several references to the sources whence information was derived, e.g., "the book of Nathan the prophet, the prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite, and the visions of Iddo the seer" (2 Chr. 9:29; cf. 2 Chr. 12:15; 13:22; 20:34; 26:22; 32:32; 33:18). These passages make it clear that, from the earliest times of the kingdom, writers living amid the events described, and generally of the prophetic order, recorded the history of their own times. These records along with Samuel and Kings formed the material out of which our books of Chronicles were compiled, the compilers choosing such portions as suited the purpose of their composition. Though secular events are not excluded from the compilations thus formed, the writers dwell with most satisfaction upon the ecclesiastical and religious aspects of the history, and the progress of temple worship in Jerusalem. The date of composition cannot be fixed with certainty.

The books of Ezra and Nehemiah, originally forming one book in the Hebrew canon, may be regarded as a sequel to 1 and 2 Chr.

Chronology. Bible chronology deals with fixing the exact dates of the various events recorded. For the earliest parts of O.T. history we rely entirely on the scripture itself; but the Hebrew Bible, the Septuagint or Greek translation, and the Samaritan Pentateuch do not agree together, so that many dates cannot be fixed with certainty. From the time of David onwards we get much assistance from secular history, e.g., inscriptions on monuments and other state records. Much work has still to be done in this direction. The dates found at the top of many printed English Bibles are due to Archbishop Ussher. Some of them have been shown to be incorrect.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES

SEQUENCE OF EVENTS IN THE DAYS OF THE EARLY PATRIARCHS

(Those desiring calculated dates on these events may wish to consult published chronologies.)

B.C.

4000 Fall of Adam.

Ministry of Enoch.

Ministry of Noah; the Flood.

Tower of Babel.

Ministry of Melchizedek.

Death of Noah (Gen. 9:28).

Birth of Abram.

In the days of Abram we meet with the names of Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, and Amraphel, king of Shinar. Egypt was manifestly a powerful kingdom before and during the patriarchal times, but the early annals of Egypt as they have come down to us help us to few synchronisms that can be relied on.

Birth of Isaac.

Birth of Jacob.

Birth of Joseph.

Joseph sold into Egypt (Gen. 37:2).

Joseph stands before Pharaoh (Gen. 41:46).

Jacob and his family go down to Egypt.

Death of Jacob.

Death of Joseph.

Birth of Moses.

The Exodus when Moses was 80 years old.

Death (translation) of Moses.

Death of Joshua.

After the death of Joshua was the period of the Judges, of whom the first was Othniel and the last Samuel, but the arrangement and dates of the rest are very uncertain.

The commencement of the Assyrian empire appears to have been somewhere in the period of the Judges, but much of the chronological data preserved in Assyrian tablets is of a fabulous character.

In this section approximate dates are suggested, some help being derived from synchronisms with secular history, which become more numerous with every succeeding century.

THE UNDIVIDED KINGDOM PERSONS AND EVENTS OF EXTERNAL HISTORY

1095 Commencement of Saul's reign. Nahash, king of Ammon.

Samuel lives for a great part of Saul's reign. Tiglath-pileser I, king of Assyria.

Agag, king of Amalek.

Achish, king of Gath.

1063 David anointed by Samuel.

1055 David king in Hebron.

1047 David king in Jerusalem. Hiram, king of Tyre.

Nathan and Gad, prophets. Hadadezer, king of Zobah.

Toi, king of Hamath.

Hanun, son of Nahash, king of Ammon.

1015 Solomon made king. Death of David.

1012 Solomon begins to build the temple.

Hiram, king of Tyre.

1004 Solomon begins to build his own house.

991 The whole buildings finished. Hadad the Edomite is protected in Egypt.

Genubath, son of Hadad.

Rezon, king of Zobah.

Shishak, king of Egypt, shelters Jeroboam.

975 Death of Solomon.

The ten tribes revolt from Rehoboam.

In the following table the first column of dates follows the books of Kings and Chronicles; the second column contains a revised chronology derived from inscriptions on Assyrian and other monuments. The kings of Judah are printed in heavy type, and the kings of Israel in capitals.

B.C. REV. KINGS OF JUDAH AND ISRAEL INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL HISTORY, SYNCHRONISMS

(Int=Internal, Ext=External, Syn=Synchronisms)

975 953 Rehoboam Int: Ahijah the Shilomite prophesies, also Shemaiah.

JEROBOAM I Penuel built (1 Kgs. 12:25).

Syn: Shishak, king of Egypt.

949 Int: Shishak plunders Jerusalem.

957 932 Abijam

955 929 Asa

954 927 NADAB Int: Oded and Azariah prophesy.

Ext: Asa's war with Zerah the Ethiopian.

953 925 BAASHA Int: War of Israel against Judah.

Hanani and Jehu prophesy.

930 901 ELAH Ext: Asa's alliance with Benhadad I.

929 899 ZIMRI

929 897 OMRI (at war with Tibni)

925 OMRI (victorious) Int: Benhadad I conquers Omri (1 Kgs. 20:34).

918 875 AHAB Int: Samaria built (1 Kgs. 16:24).

Syn: Ethbaal (Eithobalus), king of Zidon.

914 873 Jehoshaphat Int: Elijah the Tishbite.

Jericho rebuilt.

Micaiah son of Imlah prophesies.

Ext: Syrian invasion of Samaria (1 Kgs. 20:34).

Moab rebels against Israel.

Syn: Mesha, king of Moab.

898 853 AHAZIAH Int: Jahaziel prophesies (2 Chr. 20:14).

Eliezer of Mareshah prophesies (2 Chr. 20:37).

897 851 JEHORAM Int: Elisha prophesies. Obadiah prophesies (?).

Ext: Battle of Ramoth-gilead.

Syn: Hazael, king of Syria.

893 848 Joram

885 844 Ahaziah

884 843 Athaliah

884 843 JEHU

878 837 Joash Int: Joash buys off Hazael's invasion (2 Kgs. 12:18).

Ext: Syrian victories over Israel (2 Kgs. 10:32).

Syn: Sardanapalus dies.

856 JEHOAHAZ Int: Joel prophesies (?).

842 798 JEHOASH

841 797 Amaziah Syn: Shalmaneser II.

826 790 JEROBOAM II Int: Hosea prophesies.

Jonah prophesies (2 Kgs. 14:25).

Ext: Amaziah subdues Edom (2 Kgs. 14:7).

Syn: Shalmaneser III.

811 792 Azariah or Uzziah Int: Amos prophesies.

773 749 ZECHARIAH Syn: First Olympiad

772 748 SHALLUM

772 748 MENAHEM Syn: Pul, king of Assyria (= Tiglath-pileser III?).

There is much uncertainty about the chronology of the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, and Pekah, and from 2 Kgs. 15:1–2, and 30–32, it is clear that there is some confusion in the biblical numbers. Uzziah's name is now thought to have been discovered in an Assyrian inscription 740 B.C. If that proves correct, the commencement of Isaiah's prophecy cannot date before that year, and the time of Jotham's regency may have been counted as regnal years. In these tables the biblical numbers have been adhered to, as far as possible, but they require further elucidation, which we may hope for as the Assyrian chronology becomes more assured.

761 PEKAHIAH

759 PEKAH Syn: Rezin, king of Syria.

758 740 Jotham Int: Isaiah begins to prophesy.

Syn: Rome founded. Era of Nabonassar, 747.

737 Pekahiah (R. C.)

735 Pekah (R. C.)

742 734 Ahaz Syn: Tiglath-pileser III, king of Assyria (747–734).

730 733 HOSHEA Syn: So, king of Egypt.

726 728 Hezekiah Syn: Shalmaneser V, king of Assyria, 727.

721 722 End of the Northern kingdom. Int: Micah prophesies.

Syn: Sargon.

Merodach-Baladan, king of Babylon, 722.

Death of Sennacherib, 681.

Esarhaddon.

Median kingdom formed.

697 697 Manasseh Syn: Psammetichus, king of Egypt, 670.

Fall of No-Amon (Thebes), 660.

642 642 Amon Int: Nahum prophesies (?).

Syn: Assurbanipal (667–626).

640 640 Josiah Int: Huldah the prophetess.

Jeremiah begins to prophesy, 628.

Zephaniah prophesies.

Syn: Pharaoh-necho, king of Egypt.

Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, 625–604.

609 609 Jehoahaz Int: Obadiah prophesies (?).

Syn: Fall of Nineveh, 606.

609 609 Jehoiakim Int: Daniel carried captive, 606.

Syn: Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, 604–561.

598 598 Jehoiachin Int: Habakkuk prophesies.

598 598 Zedekiah Int: Ezekiel prophesies.

587 587 Capture of Jerusalem

B.C. JEWISH HISTORY PROFANE HISTORY

561 Jehoiachin's captivity relaxed. Evil-merodach, king of Babylon.

559 Commencement of the Persian Empire under Cyrus.

Neriglissar, king of Babylon, 559–555.

555 Belshazzar co-regent with Nabonidus.

538 Union of Media and Persia under Cyrus.

Fall of Babylon.

537 Decree of Cyrus for the return of the Jews.

536 Joshua, high priest.

529 Ahasuerus (Ezra 4:6). =Cambyses, king of Persia, 529–521.

525 Egypt conquered by Cambyses. Birth of Aeschylus.

521 Artaxerxes (Ezra 4:7). =Pseudo-Smerdis.

521 Darius I (Ezra 4:5). =Darius Hystaspes.

520 The hindered temple building resumed. Sophocles born, 495.

Haggai and Zechariah prophesy.

490 Battle of Marathon.

486 Ahasuerus (Esther 1:1). =Xerxes, 486–465.

Egypt revolts from Persia for 2 years.

483 Joiakim, high priest. Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis, 480.

465 Artaxerxes (Ezra 7:1). =Artaxerxes Longimanus.

458 Commission of Ezra.

453 Eliashib, high priest.

444 Nehemiah appointed governor of Judaea.

432 Nehemiah's second mission to Jerusalem. Plato born, 429.

Prophecy of Malachi.

424 Darius II. =Darius Nothus.

414 Egypt and Media both revolt from Persia.

413 Joiada, high priest.

404 Artaxerxes Mnemon.

401 Battle of Cunaxa.

Demosthenes born, 382.

373 Johanan, high priest.

359 Philip, king of Macedon.

358 Darius Ochus.

Plato dies, 348.

341 Jaddua, high priest.

337 Arses.

336 Darius III (Neh. 12:22). =Darius Codomannus.

Philip of Macedon slain.

332 Jaddua goes out to meet Alexander. Alexander in Syria and Egypt.

331 Battle of Arbela.

330 Darius slain. End of the Persian power.

323 Ptolemy Lagides obtains Egypt.

Death of Alexander the Great and dismemberment of his empire.

B.C. JEWISH HISTORY EGYPT (Egy) and SYRIA(Syr)

321 Onias I, high priest.

320 Ptolemy (Lagides) Soter takes Jerusalem.

314 Antigonus conquers Palestine from Ptolemy.

312 Syr: Seleucus (Nicator).

311 Palestine by treaty assigned to Antigonus.

302 Palestine retaken by Ptolemy.

N.B. During this disturbed period many Jews migrated from Palestine and

settled in Egypt and in parts of Asia Minor; they were held in much esteem by

the rulers of those countries in which they settled.

301 Battle of Ipsus.

Antigonus defeated by Seleucus.

300 Simon the Just, high priest.

292 Eleazar, high priest.

284 Egy: Ptolemy Philadelphus.

280 N.B. About this time the Septuagint version of the Hebrew scriptures

appears to have been commenced in Alexandria, though it was not finished for

more than a century after.

Syr: Antiochus (Soter).

277 Manasseh, high priest.

260 Syr: Antiochus (Theos).

250 Onias II, high priest.

246 Egy: Ptolemy Euergetes.

245 Syr: Seleucus Callinicus.

225 Tribute due to Egypt not paid by Onias. Syr: Seleucus Keraunus.

223 Syr: Antiochus the Great.

221 Egy: Ptolemy Philopator.

217 Simon II, high priest. Egy: Ptolemy's outrage in the Jewish temple.

216 Battle of Raphia. Egy: Treaty between Antiochus and Ptolemy.

204 Egy: Ptolemy Epiphanes.

195 Onias III, high priest.

187 Syr: Seleucus Philopator.

180 Egy: Ptolemy Philometor.

176 Heliodorus sent to plunder the temple.

175 Onias deposed by Antiochus. Syr: Antiochus Epiphanes.

Jason, high priest.

173 Egy: Cleopatra, guardian of Philometor, dies.

172 Menelaus, Jason's brother,

nominated high priest.

172 Onias III murdered about this time.

170 Syr: Antiochus defeats the Egyptians.

169 Jason seizes Jerusalem, which Syr: Second invasion of Egypt.

Antiochus attacks on his return from Egypt

and pollutes the temple.

168 Daily sacrifice interrupted. Egy: Ptolemy Physcon set up for a time in Egypt, but soon makes common cause with his brother Philometor.

Syr: Third attack on Egypt.

167 Mattathias the Hasmonean revolts.

166 Battle of Emmaus.

Victory of Judas Maccabaeus.

165 Dedication of the temple.

164 Syr: Antiochus Eupator.

163 Lysias defeated by Judas at Bethsura.

Alcimus, high priest. Menelaus put to death.

162 Syr: Demetrius Soter.

161 Nicanor defeated at Capharsalama. Egy: Contests between Philometor and Physcon. Appeals to Rome.

Death of Judas Maccabaeus at Eleasa.

160 Decree of the Roman

Senate in favor of the Jews.

159 Death of Alcimus.

156 Jonathan, brother of Judas, ruler of Judaea.

153 Jonathan made high priest by Balas. Syr: Alexander Balas set up against Demetrius.

150 Jonathan honored by Philometor and Balas. Syr: Alexander Balas, king of Syria.

149 Egy: Onias, son of Onias III, made commander-in-chief in Egypt.

146 Egy: Ptolemy Philometor opposes Alexander Balas.

145 Egy: Ptolemy Physcon (Euergetes II).

Syr: Demetrius Nicator.

143 Jonathan put to death by Tryphon.

Simon, high priest.

142 Simon, "Prince of the Jews."

Jews allowed to coin money.

139 Syr: Antiochus Sidetes. Tryphon put to death.

135 Murder of Simon.

John Hyrcanus, high priest.

130 Syr: Demetrius Nicator.

126 Syr: Zebina.

123 Syr: Antiochus Grypus.

116 Egy: Ptolemy Lathyrus (Soter II).

109 Hyrcanus wars on Samaria and Egy: Cleopatra and Alexander.

destroys the temple on Gerizim.

106 Hyrcanus dies.

Aristobulus (his son), first king of the Jews.

105 Alexander Jannaeus made king of the Jews.

96 Jannaeus captures Gaza. Egy: Ptolemy, king of Cyrene, bequeaths his kingdom to the Romans.

Syr: Seleucus succeeds his father Grypus.

94 The Pharisees hostile to Jannaeus.

93 War of Jannaeus in Gilead and Moab.

92 Syr: Philip, brother of Seleucus, gains the throne.

88 Jannaeus defeated at Shechem.

87 Egy: Ptolemy Lathyrus recalled.

83 Syr: Tigranes, king of Armenia, set over Syria.

80 Egy: Ptolemy Alexander.

78 Death of Jannaeus.

Alexandra, his widow, rules after him.

Hyrcanus II, high priest.

69 Aristobulus II seizes the government.

66 Syr: Pompey conquers Syria for the Romans.

Rom = ROMAN AFFAIRS

65 Egy: Ptolemy Auletes.

64 Disputes between Aristobulus and Hyrcanus.

63 Jerusalem taken by Pompey.

Hyrcanus again high priest.

54 Palestine divided into five districts. Rom: Crassus defeated by the Parthians at Carrhae, 53.

51 Crassus plunders the temple. Egy: Cleopatra.

48 Antipater made procurator of Judaea.

Rom: Battle of Pharsalia.

Rom: Battle of Thapsus, 46.

44 Hyrcanus, 'Prince of the Jews.' Rom: Assassination of Caesar.

42 Rom: Battle of Philippi.

41 Herod and Phasael, joint tetrarchs of Judaea.

40 Herod flees to Rome.

Antigonus set up in his stead.

38 Herod marries Mariamne.

37 Herod takes Jerusalem.

31 Rom: Battle of Actium.

Rom: Augustus, emperor, 31 B.C.-A.D. 14.

30 Egy: Cleopatra dies. Egypt becomes a Roman province.

29 Mariamne put to death.

25 Herod rebuilds Samaria.

17 Herod restores the temple.

6 Alexander and Aristobulus put to death.

NEW TESTAMENT CHRONOLOGY

A.D. CHRISTIAN HISTORY JEWISH HISTORY (Jew) and CONTEMPORARY EVENTS (Con)

Birth of Jesus Christ Jew: Death of Herod the Great.

Archelaus obtains Judaea, Samaria, and Idumaea;

Herod Antipas, Galilee;

Herod Philip, Ituraea, Trachonitis, etc.

Banishment of Archelaus.

COPONIUS procurator of Judaea;

Ananus high priest.

Jesus at Jerusalem in the temple.

Jew: Cyrenius completes "the taxing."

MARCUS AMBIVIUS, procurator.

ANNIUS RUFUS, procurator.

Con: Death of Augustus.

Jew: VALERIUS GRATUS, procurator.

Caiaphas, high priest.

Beginning of the ministry Jew: PONTIUS PILATE, procurator.

of the Baptist.

The Crucifixion.

33 Jew: Death of Herod Philip.

35 Conversion of Paul. Jew: Pontius Pilate exiled.

37 Jew: Jonathan, high priest.

Herod Agrippa obtains the tetrarchy of Herod Philip.

MARCELLUS, procurator.

Con: Death of Tiberius.

38 Jew: Josephus born.

39 The churches have rest. Jew: Antipas deposed.

Agrippa made tetrarch of Galilee.

41 Jew: Agrippa receives Judaea.

Con: Death of Caligula.

44 Death of James the brother of John. Jew: Death of Herod Agrippa I.

CUSPIUS FADUS, procurator.

45 Paul's first missionary tour.

46 Jew: TIBERIUS ALEXANDER, procurator.

48 Jew: VENTIDIUS CUMANUS, procurator.

49 Council of Jerusalem.

50 1 and 2 Thessalonians written. Con: Jews banished from Rome by Claudius.

51 Jew: CLAUDIUS [or ANTONIUS (?)] FELIX, procurator.

54 Con: Death of Claudius.

55 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Romans.

57 Paul a prisoner at Caesarea.

58 Paul sent to Rome. Jew: PORCIUS FESTUS, procurator.

59 Paul leaves Melita for Rome. Jew: Joseph, son of Simon, high priest.

60 Philippians, Colossians, Jew: ALBINUS, procurator.

Ephesians, Philemon.

61 Close of the history of the

Acts of the Apostles.

62 Jew: GESSIUS FLORUS, procurator.

Completion of the temple.

Con: Burning of Rome. Persecution under Nero.

64 Titus, 1 and 2 Timothy. Jew: Jewish war commences.

65 Martyrdom of Peter and Paul. Jew: Capture of Jotapata by Vespasian.

68 Con: Death of Nero. Galba proclaimed.

69 Con: Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, emperors.

70 Christians retire to Pella. Jew: Siege and capture of Jerusalem.

79 Con: Death of Vespasian.

81 Con: Death of Titus.

95 Persecution of Christians by Domitian.

96 Con: Death of Domitian.

Chrysolite. A precious stone (Rev. 21:20). Probably the name here denotes some kind of beryl.

Church. From the Greek, Ecclesia, meaning "an assembly called together." The church is the organized body of believers who have taken upon themselves the name of Jesus Christ by baptism and confirmation. To be the true church it must be the Lord's church, and must have his laws, his name, and be governed by him through representatives whom he has appointed (3 Ne. 27:1–12; D&C 115:4). In this sense, the church began with the days of Adam, and has been on the earth among mankind whenever there were a group of believers who had the priesthood and revelations of heaven. The word church is used only twice in the four Gospels (Matt. 16:18; 18:17) but is frequently mentioned in Acts, the epistles, and Revelation. The O.T. uses the term congregation for church. The word kingdom is often used in the scriptures to mean the church, since the church is literally the kingdom of God on the earth. The Book of Mormon, as it speaks of O.T. events, uses the word church (1 Ne. 4:26), and the Doctrine and Covenants speaks of the church in O.T. times (D&C 107:4).

Principal offices in the church are spoken of by Paul in Eph. 4:11–16, in which it is pointed out that the church is a means by which the saints (or members) become edified and progress toward the full measure of the stature of Christ. That belonging to the Lord's church is important is emphasized in Acts 2:47, where we find that "the Lord added to the church daily such as should be saved." In the church there should be unity and oneness, and Paul was greatly concerned that there were divisions in the church at Corinth (1 Cor. 1:10–13). He repeatedly explained that all the offices and functions of the church are necessary (Rom. 12:4–5; 1 Cor. 12; Eph. 4:1–16), the whole body being fitly joined together. The scriptures contain the prophecies that the church which Jesus established would fall into apostasy. This occurred soon after the death of the Twelve. Consequently, the church, with the same organization, doctrines, and authority, has in the last days been restored to the earth, preparatory to the second coming of Jesus Christ (2 Thes. 2:1–9; D&C 20:1–4; cf. Acts 3:19–21; A of F 6).

Cilicia. A province in the southeast of Asia Minor, separated from Cappadocia by the Taurus range, the pass through which was known as the Cilician Gates. Its capital was Tarsus, the birthplace of Paul (Acts 21:39). Cilicia contained large settlements of Jews (Acts 6:9); it was visited by Paul on several occasions (Gal. 1:21; Acts 9:30; 15:23, 41; 27:5).

Circumcision. The token of the Abrahamic covenant during O.T. dispensations. Those who received it thenceforth enjoyed the privileges and undertook the responsibilities of the covenant. It symbolized some aspects of separation or dedication (1) to God, to whom Israel belonged; (2) from the world, the uncircumcised with whom Israel might not mix; (3) from sin (Deut. 10:16; 30:6; Jer. 4:4; 9:25–26; Ezek. 44:7).

The subjects of circumcision were (1) male Israelites, properly when eight days old (Gen. 17:12), but sometimes at a later age (Ex. 4:25; Josh. 5:2–9); (2) slaves born in the house or bought with money (Gen. 17:13); (3) strangers who wished to eat the Passover (Ex. 12:48).

Circumcision was not peculiar to Israel. It was practiced in Egypt, and also by nations with whom Israel had not come in contact. The significance of circumcision was that it was the manifest token of the covenant that the Lord had made with Abraham and his seed. It does not matter that other nations also practiced circumcision for to them it did not have the same meaning or purpose. The various Canaanite tribes appear to have been uncircumcised (Gen. 34:14–17; Judg. 14:3; 1 Sam. 31:4; 2 Sam. 1:20).

With circumcision was connected the giving of a name; but there is no express mention of this custom until N.T. times (Luke 1:59; 2:21). It would follow naturally from the fact that Abram's name was changed at the institution of the ordinance (Gen. 17:5, 10–14).

There was much controversy in the early church with regard to the obligation of circumcision (Acts 15:1–31). The Church under direction of Peter and the Twelve, and acting under the guidance of the Spirit, declared that circumcision was not obligatory for gentile converts. However, it apparently did not settle the matter of whether or not Jewish members of the Church should have their children circumcised. As one reads the scriptures on the matter, it becomes evident that the real issue was not circumcision only, but also the larger question as to continued observance of the law of Moses by members of the Church. The word circumcision seems to have been representative of the law in these instances. The controversy was renewed later on in Galatia, as we read in Gal. 2:1–15; 5:2–6, 11; 6:12–16. These passages, along with Rom. 2:25–29; 3:1–2; Philip. 3:3; and Col. 2:11, contain Paul's teaching on the subject.

The Jewish part of the church membership, especially in Jerusalem, appears to have been very reluctant to cease from the rituals and ceremony of the law of Moses (Acts 21:17–25). This is a marked contrast to the Church among the Nephites, in which there seems to have been a cessation of the law immediately upon their awareness of the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. (3 Ne. 15:1–4; Moro. 8:8). See also Abraham, Covenant of; Law of Moses; Proselytes.

Cities of Refuge. Six cities, three on each side of Jordan (that is, Kedesh, Shechem, and Hebron, on the western side, and Bezer, Ramoth, and Golan on the eastern side), in which a man who had accidentally committed homicide could take refuge from the avenger of blood. The regulations about the use of these cities are found in Num. 35:6–34; Deut. 19:1–13; Josh. 20.

Claudius. (1) Emperor of Rome, from A.D. 41 to 51 (Acts 11:28; 18:2). (2) Claudius Lysias, the Roman military tribune in Jerusalem, who rescued Paul and sent him for trial to Caesarea (Acts 21:31 ff.; 22:24; 23:10, 26, 30).

Clean and Unclean. The distinction that the Israelites drew between clean and unclean had a great effect upon the whole of their religious and social life. It applied in the first place to food. Certain animals, birds, and fishes were regarded as clean and might be eaten, while others were unclean and were forbidden. See Lev. 11; Deut. 14:3–20. The flesh of any animal dying of itself or torn by wild animals was also forbidden (Ex. 22:31; Lev. 17:15; 22:8; Deut. 14:21). No Israelite might eat blood, which was regarded as containing the life; it had to be poured out and covered up (Gen. 9:4; Lev. 17:10–14; 19:26; Deut. 12:16, 23–25; 15:23). Fat also was forbidden; it belonged to God (Lev. 7:22–27).

For seven or fourteen days after the birth of a child the mother was unclean (Lev. 12). Uncleanness also resulted from the touch of a dead body (Lev. 11:8; 21:1–4, 11; 22:4–7; Deut. 21:22). The leper was unclean and communicated uncleanness to everything he touched (Lev. 13:1—46:14). In N.T. times, to enter the house of a gentile or to eat food with him involved uncleanness (John 18:28; Acts 10:28; 11:23). So long as a person was unclean he was cut off from the congregation. In ordinary cases of uncleanness it was sufficient to remain in seclusion till the evening and then to wash the body. In certain cases a sin offering was necessary.

Uncleanness referred to being ceremonially or ritually unclean, and should not be taken to mean that the touching of a dead body or the bearing of children was morally evil. These regulations (except the prohibition against blood, which was given as early as Noah's day) were introduced in the law of carnal commandments (of performances and ordinances) of the law of Moses; being fulfilled by the atonement of Jesus Christ, they are no longer required of the believers. See Mark 7:15–23; Acts 10:9–16, 28; 15:29; 1 Tim. 4:4; 2 Ne. 25:24–27; Mosiah 13:29–32.

Cleanness of Teeth. A unique phrase used by Amos to describe conditions of famine (Amos 4:6).

Clement. A fellow-laborer of Paul (Philip. 4:3); probably not the same as the Clement who was Bishop of Rome and the author of a well-known epistle to the Corinthians.

Cleopas. One of those who met Jesus on the road to Emmaus (Luke 24:18). Nothing beyond this is known of him, unless, as some think, he is the same as Cleophas.

Cleophas. Mentioned (John 19:25) to distinguish Mary of Clopas (i.e., probably Mary, wife of Cleophas) from two other Marys.

Clothing. The ordinary headdress of a Jew in our Lord's day was a large, brightly colored handkerchief wound into a turban. This would be worn always in public and in the presence of betters. From the back of the turban sometimes hung a smaller handkerchief, protecting the back of the neck and shoulders from the sun. On the feet, the sandals generally worn in summer were sometimes replaced in winter by roughly made shoes. On the body next to the skin was worn a long shirt of linen or cotton (Mark 14:51). It was put on over the head, and there were either slits for the arms to pass through or, perhaps more commonly, loose, short sleeves. Over this was worn a coat or tunic, something like a dressing gown, reaching generally to the feet, and fitting closely in the upper part (Matt. 5:40; Mark 14:63; John 19:23; 21:7). Sometimes, as in the case of our Lord, it was woven in a single piece from the top throughout. Outside this coat or tunic was worn a girdle, generally of leather, from which purse, pouch, or weapon hung. As the tunic, reaching below the knees, would interfere with active movement, it was drawn up under the girdle as an outward sign of being busy ("Let your loins be girded about"), or as a preliminary to energetic work, as when Elijah girded up his loins and ran before Ahab. Lastly, a square shawl, edged with a fringe and having tassels of five threads, four white and one blue, knotted together at each corner, was worn as a mantle or cloak (Matt. 5:40; Luke 6:29; 2 Tim. 4:13), and arranged so that it did not quite reach down to the bottom of the tunic.

Cloud. A word often used in the Bible. A pillar of cloud hovered over the camp by day, while Israel traveled through the wilderness. It went before them when they were to march to the next stopping place. At night it became a pillar of fire over the tabernacle (Ex. 13:21–22; 14:24; 33:9–10; Num. 9:15–23; 10:11–12, 34; Deut. 31:15; Neh. 9:12). The Lord called to Moses out of the midst of the cloud on Mount Sinai (Ex. 24:16), and a cloud filled the temple of Solomon (1 Kgs. 8:10–11). The Father spoke from a "bright cloud" on the Mount of Transfiguration (Matt. 17:5); and at Jesus' ascension a cloud received him out of sight (Acts 1:9). These were no doubt clouds of glory, not the dull, gray clouds of rain. Furthermore, at the Lord's second advent he will come with clouds (Rev. 1:7).

Cockatrice. Some venomous snake (Isa. 11:8).

Codex. A manuscript volume of ancient biblical text. A codex form of manuscript is somewhat like our present book style with the pages piled on one another and joined at one side, generally with stitching. This is contrasted to a scroll, in which the sheets are joined side by side in a series, making one long and continuous piece that is rolled from one or both ends. The codex is much easier to use than is a long scroll. The general conclusion among scholars is that the Hebrews did not use codices until the 2nd or 3rd century A.D. Thus O.T. documents are scrolls, although many N.T. documents are codices. The gold plates from which the book of Mormon was translated were in codex form, joined with three rings on one side.

Coins. See Money.

College. A name given to the northwestern, "second" part of Jerusalem where the prophetess Huldah lived (2 Kgs. 22:14).

Colony. A name given to a city, usually on the frontier of the Empire, in which for military reasons a body of Roman citizens had been placed in full enjoyment of all rights of citizenship (Acts 16:12–13). Apparently few Jewish people were in the colony, for it appears there was no synagogue there, and the people met for prayer at the river.

Colosse. A town of Phrygia, in the valley of the Lycus, near Laodicea and Hierapolis, and close to the great road that led from Ephesus to the Euphrates. When Paul wrote his epistle to the Colossians he had probably not yet visited the place. Epaphras and perhaps Timothy were its first Christian teachers (Col. 1:1, 7; 4:12–13).

Colossians, Epistle to. See Pauline Epistles.

Comforter. Two Comforters are spoken of. The first is the Holy Ghost (John 14:16–27; Moro. 8:26; D&C 21:9; 42:17; 90:11). The Second Comforter is the Lord Jesus Christ himself. "When any man obtains this last Comforter, he will have the personage of Jesus Christ to attend him, or appear unto him from time to time, and even He will manifest the Father unto him" (D&C 88:3–4; 130:3; HC 3:381). See also Holy Spirit.

Coming of Jesus Christ. Generally means, in the N.T., his "second" coming, i.e., to judgment, at the end of the world (Matt. 24:3, 27; 25:31; Acts 1:11; 1 Cor. 15:23; 1 Thes. 2:19; 3:13; 4:15; 2 Thes. 2:1–8; James 5:7–8; 2 Pet. 1:16; 3:4; 1 Jn. 2:28; Rev. 1:7; 3:11; 20:11–15; 22:12, 20).

Commandments, The Ten (Ex. 34:28; Deut. 10:4). The Hebrew name for these is the "Ten Words," hence the name Decalogue. They are also called the Covenant (Deut. 9:9) or the Testimony (Ex. 25:21). The giving of the Ten Commandments by God to Moses, and through him to Israel, is described in Ex. 19:16—20:21; 32:15–19; 34:1. They were engraved on two tables of stone, which were placed in the Ark; hence they were called the Ark of the Covenant (Num. 10:33). There has been a difference of opinion as to the way in which the commandments were divided into ten. The Roman Church, following the example of St. Augustine, unites what we know as the first and second, and divides the last into two. Our Lord, quoting from Deut. 6:4–5 and Lev. 19:18, has summarized the Ten Commandments in "two great commandments" (Matt. 22:37–39). To get their full significance we must read them in the light of our Lord's Sermon on the Mount (see also Mark 2:27 and Matt. 15:4–6 for interpretation of 4th and 5th), where it is shown that they are intended to control our thoughts and desires as well as our acts.

The Ten Commandments have been reiterated in latter-day revelation, certifying as to their genuineness and importance, as also Moses' experience on Sinai has been thus verified. See Mosiah 12:32–37; 13:5; D&C 42:18–28; 59:5–13.

Commerce. In early times the Egyptians seem to have been the leading nation in trade, carrying on business with distant cities in Syria and elsewhere (Gen. 37:25; 41:57). Until the time of Solomon, the Israelites had little trade with foreign nations, such trade being discouraged by the Mosaic law (Deut. 17:16–17). Under Solomon, commerce grew rapidly (1 Kgs. 10:22, 28–29; 2 Chr. 1:16–17; 8:18; 9:13–14, 21). The Phoenicians were at this time the chief trading race, their ports being Tyre, Sidon, and Gebal, whence ships sailed to the most distant parts of the known world. Israelite foreign trade afterwards declined, and Jehoshaphat tried to revive it (1 Kgs. 22:48–49). It would be much interrupted by frequent wars, but the language of the prophets makes it clear that a good deal of wealth had found its way into the country, and Jerusalem, with its port Joppa, is spoken of as a road to Tyre, the great Phoenician trading port.

The Law laid stress on fair dealing (Lev. 19:35–36; Deut. 25:13–16; Ezek. 27) and on the punishment that would follow the misuse of prosperity (cf. Rev. 18:12–23).

Communion. A word used generally in Protestant and Catholic Christianity to memorialize the sacrament of the Last Supper. It is so called because in partaking of the sacramental emblems (the bread and water, or wine), one seeks fellowship with the Master, for it is done in remembrance of him. Paul uses the concept in speaking of the meaning of the bread and the cup of the Lord's Supper (1 Cor. 10:16–21). He also speaks of the communion of the Holy Ghost (2 Cor. 13:14). A form of this word is also used with an opposite meaning, when a person is severed from the Church for wrong-doing. Such action is called "ex-communication"; that is, the former member loses the fellowship and communion he once had with the Lord, with the Holy Spirit, and with the members of the Church. See also 1 Cor. 11:20–34; Moro. 4, 5; D&C 20:75–79.

Compass. As a verb, to go completely around, or about, as in Matt. 23:15. As a noun, a circle, as in Prov. 8:27; or a circular direction, as in 2 Kgs. 3:9 and Acts 28:13.

Coney or rock-badger. (Ps. 104:18; Prov. 30:24, 26). Described as unclean (Lev. 11:5; Deut. 14:7).

Confession. The scriptures use confession in at least two ways. One is to confess that Jesus is the Christ; that is, a confession or profession of faith; see, for example, Matt. 10:32; 16:16; John 6:68–69; 12:42; Rom. 10:9; Philip. 2:11; 1 Tim. 6:12; Heb. 4:14; 1 Jn. 4:2. A second usage of confession is confession of sin. It is a duty of all persons to confess all their sins to the Lord and, when necessary, to the person or persons sinned against. Sins against the public must be publicly confessed (D&C 42:88–93). Other items may be confessed to a church official (bishop), or in many cases to the Lord alone. Confession to a church official (in most cases the bishop) is necessary whenever one's transgression is of a nature for which the Church might impose loss of membership or other disciplinary action. The bishop cannot and does not forgive sin, but he may judge the matter and waive the penalty that the Church might otherwise impose against the person. The repentant sinner must still make confession and obtain forgiveness of the Lord.

Confession is a condition of forgiveness. The Lord has said that true repentance is always accompanied by confession (D&C 58:43; 64:7). Confession was clearly a requirement of forgiveness under the law of Moses (Lev. 5:5; 26:40; Num. 5:7; Josh. 7:19; Ezra 10:11). John the Baptist baptized those who repented and confessed their sins (Matt. 3:5–6).

Confirmation. See Laying on of hands. The word is not found in the N.T., though the rite itself is mentioned in several places. (1) We are told (Acts 8:14–17) that after Philip had baptized the converts in Samaria, Peter and John prayed for them that they might receive the Holy Ghost; they then laid their hands on them, and the Holy Ghost was given. (2) On Paul's arrival at Ephesus (Acts 19:1–6) he found men who had received a form of baptism that they incorrectly supposed had come from John the Baptist. After they had been properly baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus, the Apostle laid his hands on them, and they received the Holy Ghost.

In these instances there is illustrated the greater authority of the Melchizedek Priesthood, compared to the Aaronic Priesthood. The latter has authority to baptize in water, but not the power to lay on hands to confer the gift of the Holy Ghost. The Melchizedek Priesthood has power to do both (JS-H 1:70–72). Baptism of water without the bestowal of the Holy Ghost would be incomplete, and would be but half a baptism (HC 5:499).

No information is to be found in the Bible as to any special age for confirmation, but it is clear that it followed close after baptism. From latter-day revelation we learn that baptism and confirmation can be administered when a person reaches the age of eight years (D&C 68:25–27). Confirmation includes more than conferring the gift of the Holy Ghost. To confirm means to "make more sure." The ordinance of confirmation completes the ceremonial process of becoming a member of the Church, and as such, it is complementary to water baptism. See also Baptism.

Conscience. The word is not found in the O.T. The chief passage in the N.T. is Rom. 2:14–15. The concept is that we are born with a natural capacity to distinguish between right and wrong, due to the light of Christ that is given to every person, D&C 84:44–53. We have a faculty by means of which we can pass judgment on our own conduct, either approving or condemning it, so anticipating the divine judgment on it. This faculty is called conscience. The possession of it at once makes us responsible beings. Like other faculties it needs to be trained, and may be deadened through misuse. Bible teaching on the subject may be classified as follows: an accusing, Gen. 3:10; 42:21; 1 Sam. 24:16–22; Prov. 20:27; Matt. 14:2; 27:3; Mark 6:16; Luke 9:7; John 8:9; Acts 24:25; Rom. 2:15; an ill-informed or ill-trained, John 16:2; Acts 8:1, 3; 26:9; Rom. 9:31; 10:2; Gal. 1:14; 4:9–11; Col. 2:16–18; 1 Tim. 1:13; a good, Acts 23:1; 24:16; Rom. 2:15; 9:1; 2 Cor. 1:12; 4:2; 1 Tim. 1:5, 19; 3:9; Heb. 13:18; 1 Pet. 3:16, 21; 1 Jn. 3:21; an evil, 1 Tim. 4:2; Titus 1:15; 1 Jn. 3:22; working of, Rom. 13:5; 14:22; 1 Pet. 2:19; respect for a weak, Rom. 14; 15:1; 1 Cor. 8:7–13; 10:23–33; purification of the, Heb. 9:14; 10:22; 1 Pet. 3:21.

Conversation. In the KJV, conversation usually means behavior, way of life, or conduct, rather than the modern sense of talking together. See Ps. 37:14; 2 Cor. 1:12; Gal. 1:13; Eph. 2:3; 4:22; Philip. 1:27; 1 Tim. 4:12; James 3:13; 1 Pet. 1:15, 18; 2:12; 3:1–2; 2 Pet. 2:7; 3:11. In Philip. 3:20 it probably means citizenship; and in Heb. 13:5, disposition.

Conversion. Denotes changing one's views, in a conscious acceptance of the will of God (Acts 3:19). If followed by continued faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, repentance, baptism in water for the remission of sins, and the reception of the Holy Ghost by the laying on of hands, conversion will become complete, and will change a natural man into a sanctified, born again, purified person—a new creature in Christ Jesus (see 2 Cor. 5:17). Complete conversion comes after many trials and much testing (see Luke 22:32; D&C 112:12–13). To labor for the conversion of one's self and others is a noble task, as in Ps. 51:13; Dan. 12:3; James 5:19–20; D&C 18:15–16. cf. Alma 26.

Convince. To convict of wrongdoing or prove guilty in Job 23:12 and John 8:46. To persuade in argument in Acts 18:28; 1 Cor. 14:24; Titus 1:9.

Cor. A measure amounting to about 10 bushels and 3 gallons, used for both solids and fluids (Ezek. 45:14); generally translated "measure" in 1 Kgs. 4:22; 5:11; 2 Chr. 2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22.

Corban = given to God. The word describes anything dedicated to God, and therefore not available for ordinary uses. The utterance of it was held to constitute a binding vow, and the fulfillment of a vow was regarded by the Pharisees as of deeper obligation than the duty even to parents. See Matt. 15:5 and Mark 7:11, where it appears that the Pharisees misused the opportunity of dedicating their material possessions to God, in order to avoid responsibility to care for their parents.

Corinth. Chief town of the Roman province of Achaia. It had a magnificent situation on the isthmus connecting the Peloponnesus with the mainland of Greece, possessing a harbor on both eastern and western sides. It was practically destroyed at the Roman conquest, 146 B.C., but was rebuilt by Julius Caesar a hundred years later. Paul lived here for a year and six months (Acts 18:1–18) in the course of his second missionary journey. Soon after his departure it was visited by Apollos. We learn from the two epistles to the Corinthians that the Church here was split up into parties, and that the Judaizing element was very active. Near here were held the famous Isthmian games, from which Paul borrows the striking imagery of 1 Cor. 9:24–27.

Corinthians, Epistles to. See Pauline Epistles.

Corn. Seven different words in Hebrew and three in Greek have been translated as corn in the KJV. They are words referring to the cereal grains used for food, such as wheat or barley. Corn in English refers to the cereal grains most common in a given region, such as wheat in England, oats in Ireland and Scotland, or maize (Indian corn) in Australia, Canada, and the U.S. Thus "ears of corn" in the English of the KJV would be called "heads of grain" in the United States. Indian corn (maize) was known and used only in the Western Hemisphere prior to the discovery of America; it is not the corn of the Bible.

Cornelius. A centurion at Caesarea, baptized by Peter (Acts 10). The significance of Cornelius's baptism is that he was probably the first gentile to come into the Church not having previously become a proselyte to Judaism (see Proselytes). Other gentiles had joined the Church, but they had been converted to Judaism before becoming Christians, which caused no great commotion among Jewish Christians who thought of Christianity as having some ties with Judaism.

Preceding the baptism of Cornelius, there were several spiritual manifestations: the ministry of an angel to Cornelius; a vision to Peter showing that the dietary restrictions of the law of Moses were to be discontinued; the voice of the Spirit to Peter; and a manifestation of the power of the Holy Ghost, accompanied by the speaking in tongues. All of this would make clear the divine approval and direction of what was about to take place.

The baptism of Cornelius and his family marked a new dimension in the work of the Church in N.T. times, since it opened the way for the gospel to be preached to the gentiles directly, without going by way of Judaism. It is notable that this major event in the missionary activity of the Church was done through the ministry of Peter, the chief apostle, who held the keys of the kingdom of God at that time on the earth.

Coulter. The iron blade fixed in front of the share in a plough (1 Sam. 13:20–21).

Council. See Sanhedrin.

Covenant. Sometimes denotes an agreement between persons (1 Sam. 23:18) or nations (1 Sam. 11:1); more often between God and man; but in this latter case it is important to notice that the two parties to the agreement do not stand in the relation of independent and equal contractors. God in his good pleasure fixes the terms, which man accepts. The same word is sometimes rendered "testament."

The gospel is so arranged that principles and ordinances are received by covenant placing the recipient under strong obligation and responsibility to honor the commitment. Thus the severe consequences to Ananias and Sapphira, who deliberately broke their covenant and lied unto God (Acts 5:1–11).

Crete. An island south of the Greek Archipelago, visited by Paul on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27:7–21), and possibly again, later on, between his first and second imprisonments (Titus 1:5). The Cretans bore a bad reputation (Titus 1:12).

Crucifixion. A Roman form of punishment, usually inflicted only on slaves and the lowest criminals. The Lord was condemned to it at the request of the Jewish mob on a nominal charge of sedition against Caesar. The purple robe, the crown of thorns, and other insults to which he was subjected were illegal. The punishment was preceded by scourging. The criminal was made to carry his own cross to the place of execution, which was always outside the city. His clothing was the perquisite of the soldiers who carried out the sentence. The cross was driven into the ground, so that the feet of the prisoner were a foot or two above the surface. The cross was watched by four soldiers at a time until death took place, which was sometimes not until the third day.

Cubit. The ordinary unit of length among the Hebrews; originally the distance from the elbow to the tip of the fingers. It varied in length, from 17½ inches in the 8th century B.C. to 21½ inches in time of our Lord.

Cummin. An umbelliferous plant (Cuminum sativum) used as a condiment and stimulant (Isa. 28:27). It was one of the small garden herbs tithed by the Pharisees (Matt. 23:23).

Cush. The dark-skinned race of Eastern Africa (south of Egypt), and of South Arabia (Gen. 10:6–7; 1 Chr. 1:8–10). Also the name of a country (= Ethiopia) (Isa. 11:11; Ezek. 38:5).

Cuth, Cuthah. A city east of Babylon, whence colonists were brought to Samaria by Shalmaneser (2 Kgs. 17:24, 30).

Cutting the flesh. An idolatrous rite (Lev. 19:28; 21:5; Deut. 14:1; 1 Kgs. 18:28).

Cyprus. A large island of the eastern Mediterranean, originally known as Chittim (see Chittim); the birthplace of Barnabas (Acts 4:36); one of the places to which Christian converts went during the persecution that followed the death of Stephen (Acts 11:19–20); visited by Paul and Barnabas (Acts 13:4; 15:39; 21:3–16; 27:4).

Cyrene. A town of Libya, on the northern coast of Africa, containing a large Jewish settlement, the home of Simon, who bore our Lord's cross (Matt. 27:32). Jews from here were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:10); its Christian converts took an active part in missionary work at Antioch (Acts 11:20; 13:1).

Cyrenius. Luke 2:2.

Cyrus. Formerly king of Elam. He captured Babylon and overthrew the Chaldean dynasty (of which Nabonidus was the last king, with Belshazzar his son as commander-in-chief). He issued a decree allowing the Jews to return to the land of Judah and rebuild the temple, possibly as a token of gratitude for assistance given to him in his conquest (2 Chr. 36:22; Ezra 1; 3:7; Isa. 44:28; 45:1; Dan. 1:21; 6:28; 10:1).

Dagon. Fish. The God of the Philistines (Judg. 16:23; 1 Sam. 5:2; 1 Macc. 10:84; 12:2). There were temples of Dagon at Gaza and Ashdod; the latter was destroyed by Jonathan the Hasmonean. His image was in the form partly of a man and partly of a fish. Some recent writers, however, question whether Dagon was really a fish-god, and connect the name with dagan, "grain."

Three O.T. incidents have somewhat to do with the worship of Dagon. A Philistine temple at Gaza was the place of Samson's death (Judg. 16:23–30); at Ashdod the Philistines were killed when the Ark of the Covenant was carried into the temple of Dagon (1 Sam. 5:1–7); and at Bethshan, after a battle between the Philistines and Israel at Mount Gilboa, the head of King Saul was placed in the temple of Dagon (1 Chr. 10:10).

Daily Service. The Law ordered that a yearling lamb, with its proper meal and drink offerings, should be offered every morning and every evening as a burnt offering (Ex. 29:38–42). This was never omitted, at least in later times, except in the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, and for about three weeks before the taking of Jerusalem by Titus. In the Holy Place, every morning and evening, incense was burnt upon the altar of incense (Ex. 30:7–8). There was also a meal offering twice every day, probably in connection with the daily burnt offering (Lev. 6:20). The offering of the daily sacrifices was accompanied with (1) music, vocal and instrumental (2 Chr. 29:27–28); (2) worship and prayer on the part of the people present (2 Chr. 29:28; Luke 1:10; Acts 3:1); (3) psalms, one being appointed for each day in the week: Pss. 24, 48, 81, 82, 92, 93, 94. Besides the public offerings, numerous private offerings were daily made. In later times daily offerings were also made on behalf of the gentile authorities; the kings of Persia (Ezra 6:9–10); the kings of Syria (1 Macc. 7:33); the Roman emperors and Roman people (Josephus, De Bell. Jud. II. x. 4).

Dalmanutha. A town on the shore of the Sea of Galilee (Mark 8:10); possibly identical with or near to Magdala (Matt. 15:39).

Dalmatia. Part of Illyricum, on the eastern coast of Adriatic Sea (2 Tim. 4:10).

Damascus. An ancient city of Syria, standing on a rich plain on the edge of the desert, well watered by the river Barada, of which the Abana and Pharpar (2 Kgs. 5:12) are tributaries. It is first mentioned in the Bible as the birthplace of Eliezer, Abraham's steward (Gen. 15:2). It was taken by David (2 Sam. 8:6; 1 Chr. 18:5–6) (for Syria-Damascus read Syria of Damascus), and is frequently mentioned in the subsequent history (1 Kgs. 11:24; 15:18; 20:34; 2 Chr. 16:2; 2 Kgs. 8:7, 9; 14:28; 16:9–16; 2 Chr. 28:5, 23; Isa. 7:8; Ezek. 27:18; 47:16–18). It was conquered by Tiglath-pileser and its inhabitants carried captive about 733 B.C. (2 Kgs. 16:9; Isa. 8:4; 17:1–3; Jer. 49:23–27; Amos 1:3–5). It was rebuilt and became an important place during the Persian supremacy. Later on it was conquered by the Greeks and afterwards by the Romans. In N.T. times it was connected with the history of Paul (Acts 9:1–27; 22:5–16; 26:12, 20; Gal. 1:17; 2 Cor. 11:32). It was then part of the dominions of Aretas, an Arabian prince subject to the Roman emperor. It eventually passed, A.D. 634, into the hands of Moslem (Muslim) Arabs, and is still a city of many thousands of inhabitants.

Damnation. As used in the KJV this word has a wider meaning than is at once apparent from modern usage. Damnation is the opposite of salvation, and exists in varying degrees. All who do not obtain the fulness of celestial exaltation will to some degree be limited in their progress and privileges, and hence be damned to that extent. See Matt. 23:14, 33; Mark 3:29; 16:16; John 5:29; Rom. 13:2; 1 Cor. 11:29; 2 Ne. 9:24; 3 Ne. 18:28–29; D&C 58:26–29; 84:74; 112:29; 132:4, 6, 27.

Dan. Judge. Son of Bilhah, Rachel's maid, and own brother to Naphtali. After the settlement in Canaan, the district assigned to the tribe of Dan was small in area, but had an admirable situation, adjoining Ephraim, Benjamin, and Judah, parts of it being extremely fertile (Josh. 19:40–48). There was a good deal of difficulty in holding it against the Amorites (Judg. 1:34), and against the Philistines (Judg. 13:2, 25; 18:1). Consequently the Danites made for themselves a settlement in the north of Palestine (Judg. 18), around Laish, to which city they gave the name of Dan. This town is well known as the northern limit of Palestine, which extended "from Dan even to Beersheba." It was chosen by Jeroboam as one of the places in which to establish the calf worship for the northern tribes (1 Kgs. 12:29; 2 Kgs. 10:29). The city was laid waste by Ben-hadad (1 Kgs. 15:20; 2 Chr. 16:4); and Jewish tradition records that the calf was carried off to Assyria by Tiglath-pileser (2 Kgs. 15:29). The reason for the omission of the tribe of Dan in John's list in Rev. 7:5–7 is not known. Its character is sketched in the blessings of Jacob and Moses (Gen. 49:16–18; Deut. 33:22).

Dancing. A natural sign of rejoicing, and as such frequently formed part of religious ceremonies (Ex. 15:20; 32:19; Judg. 11:34; 2 Sam. 6:14–16; 1 Chr. 15:29). The dancing was often accompanied by a song with chorus, and instrumental music (Ps. 68:25; 149:3; 150:4).

Daniel. A judge (is) God. (1) The second son of David, by Abigail the Carmelitess (1 Chr. 3:1); also called Chileab (2 Sam. 3:3).

(2) The hero of the book of Daniel. Nothing is known of his parentage, though he appears to have been of royal descent (Dan. 1:3); he was taken captive to Babylon and received the name of Belteshazzar (1:6–7). Along with three others he refused the "king's meat" from fear of defilement (1:8–16). He then won the favor of Nebuchadnezzar and Darius by his power of interpreting dreams (chs. 2, 4); and the handwriting on the wall (ch. 5). In consequence of a plot on the part of his enemies he was thrown into a den of lions (ch. 6), but his life was preserved. There are references to him in Ezek. 14:14, 20; 28:3; Heb. 11:33. Interesting points of resemblance may be noticed between the history of Daniel and that of Joseph.

Daniel, Book of. The book has two divisions: chs. 1—6 are narratives regarding Daniel and his three companions; chs. 7—12 are prophetic visions seen by Daniel and reported in his own name. Chs. 2:4—7:28 are written in Aramaic, and the rest in Hebrew. The book of Daniel teaches its readers the important duty of being true to the God of Israel at all cost and illustrates the blessings of the Lord upon the faithful.

A major contribution of the book is the interpretation of the king's dream in which the kingdom of God in the last days is depicted as a little stone that is cut out of a mountain, and which will roll forth until it fills the whole earth (ch. 2).

Other significant items include: the spirit of wisdom that was given to Daniel and his companions in consequence of their abstinence from wine (ch. 1); the dramatic story of the three persons being delivered from the fiery furnace by the power of God (ch. 3); the account of Daniel interpreting the handwriting on the wall (ch. 5); Daniel being cast into the den of lions (ch. 6). In every case, the deliverance of Daniel and his three friends is shown to be brought about by the blessing of God because of their faithfulness.

The prophetic visions present a succession of world-monarchies, the last of which will severely persecute the saints, but will be brought to an end by the judgment of God. Ch. 7, under the symbolism of beasts, shows how, at the end, the world-kingdoms give place to the kingdom of God. This chapter also contains the vision of "One like unto a Son of Man" standing before the Ancient of Days to receive power and glory. The "Son of Man" is Jesus Christ. Latter-day revelation identifies the Ancient of Days as Adam (D&C 116), who is also known as Michael (D&C 128:21; cf. Dan. 10:13, 21; 12:1). A testimony of mankind's resurrection is given in ch. 12.

Daniel, like Joseph, is given ability to interpret dreams, and to reveal the future. Also, like Joseph, he is careful to point out that he is not able to do this by his own wisdom, but because of the wisdom given him by the God of heaven (Gen. 40:18; 41:16; Dan. 2:19–20, 27–30, 47).

The book of Daniel, the earliest example of apocalyptic literature currently in the Bible, corresponds in the O.T. to the Revelation of John in the N.T. There are, however, examples of apocalyptic literature in Moses 7 and 1 Nephi 8, 11, which are of earlier date.

There are various additions to the book of Daniel not included in the present canon, some of which are found in the Apocrypha, that is, the Song of the Three Children, the History of Susanna, and Bel and the Dragon. (See Apocrypha.)

Darius. (1) The Mede, king of Babylon after the death of Belshazzar (Dan. 5:31; 6:9, 25–28; 9:1; 11:1). It is impossible to identify him with any of the kings of Babylon known to secular history. (2) The son of Hystaspes and founder of the Persian dynasty (Ezra 4:5, 24; 5:5–7; 6:1–15; Hag. 1:1, 15; 2:10; Zech. 1:1, 7; 7:1). (3) Darius Codomannus, called Darius the Persian in Neh. 12:22; the last king of Persia, overthrown by Alexander the Great 330 B.C.

Darkness. Symbolical (1) of spiritual blindness or ignorance (Isa. 9:2; Matt. 6:23; John 1:5; 3:19; 8:12; 12:35, 46; Rom. 13:12; Eph. 5:8, 11; 1 Thes. 5:5; 1 Pet. 2:9; 1 Jn. 1:5–6; 2:8–11); (2) of death ("land of darkness") (Job 10:21–22), and of separation from God (Matt. 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet. 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).

David. Beloved. His life divides into four portions: (1) at Bethlehem with the sheep (1 Sam. 16; 17); (2) at court (1 Sam. 18—19:18) (see Jonathan); (3) as a fugitive (1 Sam. 19:18–2 Sam. 1:27); (4) as king (a) over Judah at Hebron (2 Sam. 2–4), (b) over all Israel (2 Sam. 5–1 Kgs. 2:11). The long and varied discipline through which he passed in the earlier part of his life fitted him for the duties of the throne. As shepherd he acquired the habit of deep reflection; as courtier he was trained in self-control and chivalrous generosity; as outlaw he acquired knowledge of men and power of government; while each successive phase of experience developed that conscious dependence upon God which was the secret of his strength throughout his life. Like Saul he was guilty of grave crimes; but unlike Saul, he was capable of true contrition and was therefore able to find forgiveness, except in the murder of Uriah. As a consequence David is still unforgiven, but he received a promise that the Lord would not leave his soul in hell. He will be resurrected at the end of the Millennium. Because of his transgressions, he has fallen from his exaltation (D&C 132:39).

So long as Abner and Ishbosheth lived, David's kingdom was restricted to the tribe of Judah. After their deaths he started on a series of conquests, beginning with Jerusalem, and finally extending his dominions as far as the Euphrates. His sin with Bathsheba was followed by a series of misfortunes that marred the last 20 years of his life. The nation as a whole was prosperous, but David himself suffered from the consequences of his own misdeeds. There were constant family feuds, which, in the case of Absalom and Adonijah, ended in open rebellion. These incidents are a fulfillment of the pronouncement of Nathan the prophet upon David, because of his sin (2 Sam. 12:7–13).

In spite of these disasters David's reign was the most brilliant of Israelitish history, for (1) he united the tribes into one nation, (2) he secured undisputed possession of the country, (3) the whole government rested upon a religious basis, and the will of God was the law of Israel. For these reasons it was in later times regarded as the nation's golden age, and the type of the more glorious age to which the nation looked forward when Messiah should come (Isa. 16:5; Jer. 23:5; 30:9; Ezek. 34:23–24; 37:24–28).

A large number of the Psalms ascribed to David were certainly not written by him, but the following seem directly connected with the history of his life. A series consisting of Pss. 101, 15, 68, 24 was probably composed on the occasion of the removal of the Ark to Jerusalem. Pss. 20, 21, 60, 110 belong to the period of David's foreign wars; while Ps. 18 (2 Sam. 22) marks the highest point of the national prosperity. David's fall gave occasion to Pss. 51 and 32. The flight from Absalom led to the composition of Pss. 63 (written immediately after he left the city), 3 and 4 (which are morning and evening hymns), 26, 62, 27, and 28. There are others that are possibly of Davidic origin.

David's life illustrates the need for all persons to endure in righteousness to the end. As a youth he is characterized as being a man after the Lord's "own heart" (1 Sam. 13:14); as a man he spoke by the Spirit and had many revelations. But he paid, and is paying, a heavy price for his disobedience to the commandments of God.

Day of Atonement. See Fasts.

Dayspring = daybreak (Job 38:12; Luke 1:78.)

Daystar = morning star (2 Pet. 1:19; cf. Rev. 2:28; 22:16.)

Deacon See Ministry.

Dead Sea. Also known as the Salt Sea. Located at the southern end of the Jordan valley, 53 miles long, with an average breadth of 9 miles, its surface being 1290 ft. below the Mediterranean, and its greatest depth 1300 ft. It is fed by the Jordan and by several smaller streams, and has no outlet except by evaporation. All the mineral salts that the streams bring down are consequently accumulated, and this accounts for the extreme bitterness of the water. Its shores are memorable as the scene of God's judgment on the cities of the plain, viz., Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim, and Zoar or Bela (see Gen. 19). The position of these cities is uncertain; they have been placed by some scholars at the northern end (so as to be within view of Bethel), and by others at the southern end.

Dead Sea Scrolls. In 1947 in an area known as Qumran, near the northwest corner of the Dead Sea, some significant rolls of leather and a few copper manuscripts were found preserved in earthen jars in some dark caves. They were found quite by accident by goat herders. As a result of further searches in the area, many documents have been discovered and translated. The languages are Hebrew and Aramaic. Some are dated as early as 200 B.C.; others a century or so A.D. Complete copies and/or fragments of every book of the O.T. have been found except the book of Esther. Deuteronomy, Isaiah, and Psalms are the most numerous. Books of regulations and "manuals of discipline" produced by the people who made the scrolls have also been located.

The contents of the scrolls are interesting to historians, textual critics, and readers of the Bible. The full impact may not yet be realized. However, the most significant fact may be that the scrolls give solid evidence that there was a highly literary people in the Jerusalem area, in the period just preceding and following the time of Christ, who were writing and preserving their records. The implications of this for the early dating of the New Testament books are significant.

The finding of the Dead Sea Scrolls stimulated considerable interest among scholars of the antiquities. Not all the answers are in the Dead Sea scrolls, but they constitute one of the most important archaeological discoveries of modern times. If discoveries continue, we may learn many things about the ancient people that will give us clearer historical insights. It is to be expected that such discoveries will support and supplement many principles and ideas that are already known to us through latter-day revelation.

Death. Two kinds of death are spoken of in the scriptures. One is the death of the body, which is caused by the separation of the body from the spirit; i.e., "The body without the spirit is dead" (James 2:26). The other is spiritual death, which is to die as pertaining to, or to be separated from, righteousness—to be alienated from the things of God (Alma 12:16, 32; 40:26). Both of these deaths were introduced into the world by the fall of Adam. But death is also the consequence of our own sins. We make our own spiritual death by our works, our thoughts, and our actions. As Paul said, "The wages of sin is death" (Rom. 6:23), and some are "dead" while they "liveth" (1 Tim. 5:6).

In explaining these things, Jacob called the physical death, the grave, and spiritual death he called hell. The atonement of Jesus Christ will bring all persons back into the presence of God to be judged, the body coming forth from the grave and uniting with the spirit released from paradise or from hell (as the case may be). This will restore all mankind to the presence of God. This is the same as Paul spoke: "For as in Adam all die, even so in Christ shall all be made alive" (1 Cor. 15:21–23). Then those who have willfully rebelled against the light and truth of the gospel will suffer again a spiritual death, which is called the second death (Rev. 20:14; Alma 12:16–18; Hel. 14:16–19; D&C 76:36–37). Each person suffers only one physical death, since when once resurrected, the body can die no more (Alma 11:42–45).

Latter-day revelation teaches that there was no death on this earth for any forms of life before the fall of Adam. Indeed, death entered the world as a direct result of the fall (2 Ne. 2:22; Moses 6:48).

Deborah. A bee. (1) Nurse of Rebekah (Gen. 24:59; 35:8). (2) A famous woman who judged Israel, and encouraged Barak against Sisera (Judg. 4); the well-known song of Deborah and Barak commemorated the Israelitish victory (Judg. 5).

Decalogue. See Commandments, The Ten.

Decapolis. Ten cities. The district east and southeast of the Sea of Galilee, containing a mixed population of Greeks, Syrians, Arabs, and Jews, the Greek element being the greatest (Matt. 4:25; Mark 5:20; 7:31).

Decision, Valley of. The valley of Jehoshaphat or of the Kidron, lying between the city of Jerusalem and the Mount of Olives. It is spoken of in Joel 3:14, in connection with events of the second coming of the Savior.

Dedication, Feast of the. See Feasts.

Degrees, Songs of. Fifteen Psalms (120–134), probably so called because they were sung by Jewish pilgrims on their way up to Jerusalem.

Degrees of Glory. It is apparent that if God rewards everyone according to the deeds done in the body, the term heaven as intended for man's eternal home must include more kingdoms than one. In speaking of man in his resurrected state, Paul tells of glories like the sun, the moon, and the stars (1 Cor. 15:39–41). He also speaks of the "third heaven" (2 Cor. 12:2). Jesus spoke of "many mansions" or kingdoms (John 14:2). Latter-day revelation confirms the teaching of the Bible on these matters and verifies that there are three general categories or glories to which the members of the human family will be assigned in the judgment following their resurrection from the grave. These are known as the celestial, terrestrial, and telestial kingdoms, of which the sun, moon, and stars are spoken of as being typical (D&C 76; 88:20–32; 131:1–4). In addition to the degrees of glory, there is a place of no glory, called perdition, reserved for those who commit the unpardonable sin.

Dehavites. Colonists planted in Samaria by Esarhaddon after the completion of the captivity of Israel (Ezra 4:9). It is uncertain where they came from.

Delilah. Weak, delicate. A Philistine woman from the valley of Sorek who had such influence over Samson that she obtained from him the secret of his strength and betrayed him, which was the cause of his being blinded and imprisoned at Gaza (Judg. 16).

Demetrius. (1) A silversmith of Ephesus who, in fear for his trade, led a tumult against Paul (Acts 19:24–41); see Diana. (2) A Christian commended by John (3 Jn. 1:12).

Demoniacs. See Devil.

Denarius. See Money.

Deputy. In N.T. = proconsul, an official of the Roman government (Acts 13:7–8, 12; 19:38).

Deuteronomy. The word means "repetition of the law." The book contains the three last discourses of Moses delivered in the plains of Moab just before his death (translation). The first discourse is found in chs. 1—4, and is introductory. The second discourse (chs. 5—26) consists of two parts: (1) 5–11, the Ten Commandments and a practical exposition of them, (2) 12–26, a code of laws, which forms the nucleus of the whole book. The first group of laws deals with the ritual of religion and begins with a command to destroy all idolatrous objects of worship in Canaan; only one central place for worship of Jehovah is to be allowed. Then follow special instances of enticement to false worship and rules about food and about tithe. Then we have the law of debt, directions about firstlings, and a calendar of festivals. The next group of laws deals with the administration of justice, while the last group regulates private and social rights. The third discourse (chs. 27—30) contains a solemn renewal of the covenant and an announcement of the blessings of obedience and the curses upon disobedience. In chs. 30—34 we have an account of the delivery of the law to the Levites, Moses' song and last blessing, and the departure of Moses.

Deuteronomy is quoted frequently in the N.T.: Matt. 4:4, cf. Deut. 8:3; Matt. 4:7, cf. Deut. 6:16; Matt. 4:10, cf. Deut. 6:13; Matt. 5:31, cf. Deut. 24:1; Mark 12:30, cf. Deut. 6:5; Acts 3:22, cf. Deut. 18:15, 18; 1 Cor. 9:9, cf. Deut. 25:4; 2 Cor. 13:1, cf. Deut. 19:15; Gal. 3:13, cf. Deut. 21:23; Rom. 10:6–8, cf. Deut. 30:12, 14.

Devil. The English word devil in the KJV is used to represent several different words in Greek, i.e., slanderer, demon, and adversary, and Hebrew, i.e., spoiler. The devil is the enemy of righteousness and of those who seek to do the will of God. Literally a spirit son of God, he was at one time "an angel" in authority in the presence of God; however, he rebelled in the premortal life, at which time he persuaded a third of the spirit children of the Father to rebel with him, in opposition to the plan of salvation championed by Jehovah (Jesus Christ). "Thus came the devil and his angels" (D&C 29:37). They were cast out of heaven, and were denied the experience of mortal bodies and earth life (Isa. 14:12–15; Rev. 14:4–9; 2 Ne. 2:17; 9:8; D&C 29:36–38; 76:25–26; 93:25; Moses 4:1–4; Abr. 3:27–28).

Latter-day revelation confirms the biblical teaching that the devil is a reality and that he does strive to lead men and women from the work of God. One of the major techniques of the devil is to cause human beings to think they are following God's ways, when in reality they are deceived by the devil to follow other paths.

Since the devil and his premortal angels have no physical body of flesh and bones, they often seek to possess the bodies of mortal beings. There are many such instances recorded in scripture (Matt. 9:32; 12:22; Mark 1:24; 5:7; Luke 8:30; Acts 19:15; cf. Mosiah 3:6). Such can be evicted by the power of faith in Jesus Christ and the exercise of the holy priesthood. Jesus gave this power to his disciples (Matt. 10:1; Mark 16:17; Luke 10:17; Acts 5:16; D&C 84:67).

The devil is called the prince of this world (John 12:31; 14:30; 16:11); the adversary (1 Pet. 5:8); Beelzebub, meaning the prince of the devils (Mark 3:22); the wicked one (Matt. 13:38); the enemy (Matt. 13:39); Lucifer (Isa. 14:12; D&C 76:26); Satan (Rev. 12:9); prince of the power of the air (Eph. 2:2–3); Perdition (D&C 76:26); son of the morning (D&C 76:26–27); that old serpent (Rev. 12:9; D&C 76:28); the great dragon (Rev. 12:7–9); a murderer from the beginning (John 8:44); a liar from the beginning (D&C 93:25); and the accuser (Rev. 12:10).

He is miserable in his situation, and "stirreth up the children of men unto secret combinations of murder and all manner of secret works of darkness" (2 Ne. 9:9). He tries to imitate the work of God by transforming himself nigh unto an angel of light (2 Cor. 11:12–15; 2 Ne. 9:9; D&C 128:20). He is also a worker of miracles, by which he deceives many upon the earth (Rev. 13:1–15). In fact, the scripture says he deceives the whole world (Rev. 12:9). He can cite scripture to make his point seem plausible (Matt. 4:1–11). All of this is his scheme to make man miserable like himself. Protection against the influence of the devil is found by obedience to the commandments and laws of the gospel of Jesus Christ. The message of all the prophets and apostles is that truth, righteousness, and peace shall in the end prevail over error, sin, and war; the faithful shall triumph over all their afflictions and enemies, and shall triumph over the devil. There shall be a complete and lasting victory of righteousness over wickedness on this earth, which will be done by the power of the Lord Jesus Christ.

Dew. Of great importance in Palestine owing to the want of rain during a large portion of the year; hence spoken of as a source of fertility (Gen. 27:28; Deut. 33:13); and in poetry as typical of any beneficial effect produced by quiet means (Deut. 32:2; Ps. 110:3; 133:3; Prov. 19:12; Song. 5:2; Isa. 18:4; 26:19; Hosea 6:4; 13:3; 14:5; Micah 5:7).

Diana. A goddess, in whose honor a temple was erected at Ephesus (Acts 19:24–41) (see Ephesus). The Ephesians called her Artemis and regarded her as the source of the fruitful and nurturing powers of nature, and so the image in the temple (said to have fallen from heaven) represented her with many breasts. The lower part of the figure was swathed like a mummy. The silversmiths at Ephesus did a large trade in silver "shrines for (or of) Diana." These were probably representations of the goddess seated in a niche or under a canopy. A good many works of art of this kind in marble and terra-cotta have been discovered at Ephesus. They were either placed in the temple or taken home by the worshiper.

Diaspora. Dispersion. This refers to the scattering of the house of Israel into lands other than Palestine. In many instances those scattered remained in those lands and did not return. The Jews in particular penetrated all the large cities of the Roman Empire and established centers of Judaism, with synagogues, although they retained strong ties with Jerusalem, making frequent pilgrimages there at the feasts of Passover, Pentecost, Tabernacles, etc. (Acts. 2:9–11; cf. John 7:35). In these countries the Jews often adopted many traits of Greek and Roman culture. Paul was a Jew of the diaspora, as was also Aquila. See Dispersion; Septuagint.

Didymus. Twin. The Greek equivalent of the Aramaic name Thomas (John 11:16; 20:24; 21:2).

Dinah. Jacob's daughter by Leah (Gen. 30:21; 34; 46:15).

Dinaites. Colonists, possibly from western Armenia, placed in cities of Samaria by Tiglath-pileser (Ezra 4:9).

Diotrephes. A member of the Church condemned by John because he "loveth to have the preeminence" (3 Jn. 1:9).

Disciple. A pupil or learner; a name used to denote (1) the twelve, also called apostles, (2) all followers of Jesus Christ. We also read of disciples of John the Baptist and of the Pharisees (Mark 2:18).

Disfigurement of one's own body. A forbidden practice (Lev. 19:27–28; 21:5; Deut. 14:1; see also Isa. 15:2; Jer. 9:26; 16:6–7; 41:5; 47:5; 48:37).

Dispensations. A dispensation of the gospel is a period of time in which the Lord has at least one authorized servant on the earth who bears the holy priesthood and the keys, and who has a divine commission to dispense the gospel to the inhabitants of the earth. When this occurs, the gospel is revealed anew, so that people of that dispensation do not have to depend basically on past dispensations for knowledge of the plan of salvation. There have been many gospel dispensations since the beginning. The Bible suggests at least one dispensation identified with Adam, another with Enoch, another with Noah, and so on with Abraham, Moses, and Jesus with his apostles in the meridian of time. Paul writes of "the dispensation of the fulness of times" in which the Lord will "gather together in one all things in Christ, both which are in heaven, and which are on earth" (Eph. 1:10). The fulness of times is the final dispensation, and began with the revelation of the gospel to Joseph Smith. It is a dispensation of restoration and of fulfillment of the Lord's plans and purposes since the world began. There are also things reserved for the fulness of times that have not been revealed previously (D&C 121:26–32; 124:41). It is a glorious time, the time in which we live today (see Acts 3:19–21; D&C 27:13; 110:11–16; 112:14–32; 128:18–21; 136:37–40).

In addition there were dispensations of the gospel among the Nephites, the Jaredites, and the Lost Tribes of Israel. Melchizedek could also be included, as well as John the Baptist, since they truly held the priesthood and taught the word of the Lord to the people and were unique in their time. There are many other prophets who have had the priesthood and a knowledge of the gospel. Perhaps if more were revealed to us, we would learn that they too should be spoken of as having a dispensation. These could include, among others, Abel, Esaias, Gad, Jeremy, Elihu, Caleb, Jethro, Zenock, and Zenos. See JST Gen. 14:25–40; 1 Ne. 19:10–12; Alma 13:14–19; 33:3–17; D&C 84:6–16; HC 3:386–89; 4:208–9.

The plan of salvation, which is older than the earth, has been revealed and taught in every dispensation beginning with Adam and is the same in every age of the world. However, each of the dispensations has been unique in some way. For example, Adam opened the way of the earth; Noah preserved a portion of mankind through the flood; Jesus wrought the atonement and resurrection; and through Joseph Smith the foundation was laid for a culmination of the purposes of God on the earth.

Although the Bible contains historical information pertaining to the ancient prophets and patriarchs, it is latter-day revelation that makes it clear that the leaders of former dispensations had the gospel of Jesus Christ and that certifies to the divine calling, ordination, and high intelligence of those early brethren (D&C 84:6–16, 26–28; 107:41–57; Moses 6:3–6, 45–46).

Dispersion. A title applied to all Israelites who remained settled in foreign countries subsequent to the decree of Cyrus (Ezra 1). The Epistle of James is addressed to them (James 1:1; cf. John 7:35). One result of this dispersion was the existence in many different parts of the world of Jewish synagogues, which became of great service to the spread of Christianity (Acts 2:5–11; 6:9; 13:43–45; 14:1–2, 19; 16:3; 17:1, 10–13; 18:2, 12, 19; 19:13–17, 33; 28:17–29). All Jews, wherever they might be, regarded the temple at Jerusalem as the center of their worship, and contributed the usual half-shekel toward its maintenance (Matt. 17:24). The Jews of Babylonia spoke an Aramaic dialect similar to that spoken in Palestine. The Jews of Syria, Egypt, and Italy adopted the Greek language and along with it many Greek ideas. For their use, the Greek translation of the O.T. known as the Septuagint was made. See also Diaspora; Septuagint.

Divination. Any superstitious method of trying to discover the course of future events. Such practices have been found among all nations and in every age; they are frequently condemned in scripture (Lev. 19:31; 20:6; Deut. 18:10; 2 Kgs. 21:6; Isa. 8:19; 19:3; Acts 8:9; 13:6, 8; 16:16).

Divorce. Permitted under some circumstances because of the hardness of the people's hearts, but as explained by Jesus, "from the beginning it was not so" (Matt. 19:3–12). Regulation concerning divorce under the law of Moses is found in Lev. 21:14; Deut. 22:19, 29; 24:1–4. In the N.T. there are instructions relating to divorce in Matt. 5:31–32; 19:3–12; Mark 10:2–12; Luke 16:18; 1 Cor. 7:10–17.

Dog. Sometimes used for guarding flocks, but usually held in aversion by the Israelites, being regarded as half-wild, greedy creatures, running about at will without a master and acting as public scavengers (Deut. 23:18; 1 Sam. 17:43; 24:14; 2 Sam. 3:8; 9:8; 16:9; 2 Kgs. 8:13; Ps. 59:6; Matt. 7:6; 15:26; Philip. 3:2; Rev. 22:15); the name is applied to false teachers (Isa. 56:10, 11; Philip. 3:2; Rev. 22:15); and frequently by Jews to Gentiles (Mark 7:27).

Dorcas. A woman of Joppa, well known for her good works, restored to life by Peter (Acts 9:36–42). Dorcas is the Greek equivalent of the Aramaic name Tabitha, both meaning "a gazelle."

Dothan. A town 10 miles north of Samaria, well known for its good pastures (Gen. 37:17; 2 Kgs. 6:13).

Dove, or turtle-dove. Very common in Palestine; first mentioned in Gen. 8:8–12; a pair of doves or two pigeons were allowed as substitute in some of the offerings for a lamb or kid in the case of poor persons (Lev. 1:14; 5:7; Luke 2:24); it was also the Nazarite's offering (Num. 6:10). In Song. 2:12 and Jer. 8:7 its migratory habits are mentioned; in Ps. 74:19 it is an emblem of affection and timidity; and in Matt. 10:16, of harmlessness. See also Dove, Sign of; Turtle.

Dove, Sign of. A prearranged means by which John the Baptist would recognize the Messiah at Jesus' baptism (John 1:32–34). "The sign of the dove was instituted before the creation of the world, a witness for the Holy Ghost, and the devil cannot come in the sign of a dove. ... The sign of a dove was given to John to signify the truth of the deed, as the dove is an emblem or token of truth and innocence" (Joseph Smith, HC 5:261). See 1 Ne. 11:27; 2 Ne. 31:8; D&C 93:15; Abr., fac. 2, fig. 7. Though we usually associate the sign of the dove with John the Baptist, from the latter reference we learn that it was manifested to Abraham also. We suppose that it has been similarly made known to other prophets on occasion since the time of Adam.

Dragon. Two Hebrew words are thus rendered though they are sometimes translated whale, serpent, jackal, or sea-monster. Probably a large snake or snakelike animal in Deut. 32:33; Ps. 74:13; 91:13. A jackal in Job 30:29; Isa. 13:22; 27:1; 34:13; 35:7; 43:20; 51:9; Jer. 9:11; 10:22; 51:34; Mal. 1:3. Used figuratively in Ezek. 29:3. In the New Testament it is always used figuratively, as in Rev. 12:3, 7, 9, 13, 16; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2. Cf. Mosiah 20:11; Alma 43:44.

Dreams. One of the means by which God communicates with men (Gen. 15:12; 20:3–7; 28:12–15; 31:24; 37:5–10; 40:5; 41:1–28; Judg. 7:13; 1 Kgs. 3:5; Dan. 2:1; 4; Matt. 1:20; 2:12, 13, 20; 27:19; 1 Ne. 3:1–2; 8:2).

Dromedary. A fine and swift breed of Arabian camel (Isa. 60:6; Jer. 2:23).

Drusilla. Third wife of the Roman procurator Felix, for whom she had deserted her husband, King Aziz of Emessa. She was the youngest daughter of Herod Agrippa I, the sister of Bernice, and the granddaughter of Herod the Great. While yet a very young woman, she heard Paul speak at Caesarea (Acts 24:24). She and Felix had a son, Agrippa, who perished in an eruption of Vesuvius.

Dulcimer. A musical instrument, probably on the order of the bagpipe (Dan. 3:5).

Earnest. A pledge or security. The word thus translated is a commercial term denoting the deposit paid by a buyer on entering into an agreement for the purchase of anything. As used by Paul (2 Cor. 1:22; 5:5; Eph. 1:14) it means that the Lord gives us his Holy Spirit in this life as a foretaste of the joy of eternal life. The Spirit is also the Lord's surety that he will fulfill his promise to give eternal life to the faithful.

Easter. This word occurs only once in the Bible (Acts 12:4) and then would be better translated passover. The word Easter is from Eastre, a Norse goddess whose pagan festival was observed at the spring equinox. The association of this pagan goddess with the celebration of the resurrection of Jesus Christ was only by adaptation and synthesis. There is no real connection. Jesus, being the Lamb of God, was crucified at passover time and is the true Passover (see 1 Cor. 5:7). He was raised from the grave on the third day thereafter. It thus became a springtime anniversary, and has come to be called Easter in the Christian world.

Ebal, Mount. A mountain some 3,000 feet high, to the north of Shechem, Mount Gerizim lying to the south. Here Joshua explained to the Israelites the curse that would fall on them if they disobeyed the commandments of God as delivered by Moses in Deut. 11:26–29; 27:11–26. See also Josh. 8:32–35. It was also to be the site of a great altar (Deut. 27:2–8; Josh. 8:30–31). See also Gerizim.

Eben-ezer. Stone of help. A stone set up by Samuel as a token of gratitude for deliverance from the Philistines (1 Sam. 7:10–12). The place had previously been the scene of two defeats (1 Sam. 4:1; 5:1); and in the account of these defeats it is called by the name it received later on. Its position may have been at the head of the valley of Ajalon.

Eber. Great-grandson of Shem and the ancestor of the Hebrew people (Gen. 10:24; 11:14–17; Num. 24:24). Sometimes called Heber (Luke 3:35). The word Hebrew is a patronymic name derived from Eber.

Ecclesiates. A Greek translation of the Hebrew Koheleth, a word meaning "one who convenes an assembly," sometimes rendered Preacher. The book of Ecclesiastes consists of reflections on some of the deepest problems of life, as they present themselves to the thoughtful observer. The epilogue (Eccl. 12:9–14) sets forth the main conclusions at which the writer has arrived. The author describes himself as "son of David, king in Jerusalem" (1:1).

The book of Ecclesiastes seems permeated with a pessimistic flavor, but must be read in the light of one of its key phrases: "under the sun" (1:9), meaning "from a worldly point of view." The term vanity also needs clarification, since as used in Ecclesiastes it means transitory, or fleeting. Thus the Preacher laments that as things appear from the point of view of the world, everything is temporary and soon gone—nothing is permanent. It is in this light also that the reader must understand 9:5 and 9:10, which declare that the dead "know not any thing," and there is no knowledge "in the grave." These should not be construed as theological pronouncements on the condition of the soul after death; rather, they are observations by the Preacher about how things appear to men on the earth "under the sun." The most spiritual part of the book appears in chapters 11 and 12, where it is concluded that the only activity of lasting and permanent value comes from obedience to God's commandments, since all things will be examined in the judgment that God will render on man.

Eden, Garden of. The home of our first parents, Adam and Eve (Gen. 2:8—3:24; 4:16; cf. Isa. 51:3; 2 Ne. 2:19–25; Moses 3, 4; Abr. 5), designated as a garden, eastward in Eden. Latter-day revelation confirms the biblical account of the Garden of Eden, and adds the important information that it was located on what is now the North American continent.

Edom. Red. Name of Esau (Gen. 25:30); of his descendants (Gen. 36; 1 Chr. 1:35 ff.); of their country in Mount Seir (Gen. 32:3; 36:9; Deut. 2:5, 12, 22). This country lay to the southeast of Palestine, having Moab on the north and the Dead Sea on the northwest. It was not included within the limits of the land of Israel (Deut. 2:5; cf. Josh. 24:4). From the time of the Maccabees it was known as Idumea. The original inhabitants were "the children of Seir," or Horites (Gen. 14:6; 36:20), and were probably dwellers in holes or caverns. It passed by conquest into the possession of the descendants of Esau; and in Deut 2:4–5; 23:7, mention is made of the blood relationship between the Israelites and the Edomites. In spite of the kinship there seems to have been great mutual hatred, and wars were of constant occurrence (Num. 20:14 ff.; 21:4; Judg. 11:17; 1 Sam. 14:47; 2 Sam. 8:13–14; Jer. 27:3; 49:7–22; Ezek. 35:3–15). The Edomites spoke a language that closely resembled Hebrew.

Edrei. (1) A city of Og, king of Bashan, east of the river Jordan, in territory allotted to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Num. 21:33; Deut. 1:4; 3:1, 10; Josh. 12:4; 13:12, 31). Modern explorations have discovered on the ancient site (now called Edra'ah) an elaborately contrived subterranean city, with streets, shops, and marketplace. (2) A town allotted to Naphtali (Josh. 19:37).

Education. The divine law impressed upon parents the duty of teaching their children its precepts and principles, but little is known about the methods of teaching that were employed. Up to six years of age a child was taught at home, chiefly by the mother (cf. 2 Tim. 1:5). The schools that all boys from six years old had to attend were generally held in the synagogues. Until a boy was ten no textbook was used but scripture. The aim was to encourage study by sense of duty rather than by reward or fear. Reading, writing, and grammar were taught, and in order that teaching might be thorough, no class even in the elementary school might exceed 25 pupils. The "religious question" could not exist in Jewish education any more than in Church schools today, for the whole purpose of education was religious. Nothing was regarded as worth learning except as it illustrated scripture. At home probably Bible stories were taught as with us, but the regular course at school began with the first seven chapters of Leviticus, so that a boy might know what outward acts were required of him; then the rest of the Pentateuch, the Prophets, and the remainder of the O.T.

At the age of 12 a Jewish boy was taken to Jerusalem at one of the feasts and tested by the doctors of the law in the temple as to his knowledge of the duties and privileges to which by circumcision he had been admitted. In passing this test he was regarded as freely and intelligently "taking upon himself the yoke of the law," or "of the kingdom of God," and henceforth he was bound to fulfill all the precepts of the ceremonial law. Thus Jesus was at the temple at age 12 (Luke 2:41–52).

The use of object lessons and monuments as aids to teaching are frequently specified (Ex. 13:14–18; Josh. 4:1–9). Repeated references in Psalms and Proverbs have an educational flair, as in Prov. 4; 31:1 (cf. 2 Tim. 3:15). All of the ceremonies and rituals both of the law of Moses and in the gospel of Jesus Christ are designed for an educational function through their symbolism. See also Bitter herbs; Schools of the Prophets; Symbolism; Synagogue.

Egypt. This country was known to the Hebrews as Mizraim. The origin of the Greek name by which we call it is uncertain. The kingdom of Egypt was formed by the union under a single sovereign (the Pharaoh, i.e., "Great House") of a number of districts, often divided by local jealousies and by differences of religious belief. The policy of the Pharaohs was to overcome these forces of disunion by a well-organized central administration and by a single state religion that should provide for the worship of all the various local deities. Church and state were closely knit together, and the priests formed a most influential class and a chief stay of the throne (cf. Gen. 47:22). The country was rich and prosperous, and great public works were executed, including canals for irrigation, strong cities for defense, and royal monuments, especially tombs and temples, which are still among the wonders of the world. The state religion was much occupied with thoughts of the life after death, and Osiris, the god of the dead, is the most prominent of all the Egyptian deities. The safety of the soul after death was believed to depend on the care taken of the dead body. Hence the practice of embalming and the pains spent on providing safe and splendid tombs. The great pyramids are the tombs of early kings belonging to what is generally called the Old Empire. The pyramid builders, who reigned at Memphis at least 3,000 years before Christ, were followed by a series of princes who reigned in Thebes. This is known as the Middle Empire. Then came a time of decay and foreign invasion, when the land was conquered by the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings, who ruled for about 500 years. They probably came from the East and opened the way into Egypt for various Canaanite tribes. It was under the later Hyksos that the Hebrews settled in Goshen. The powerful princes of Upper Egypt struggled against the supremacy of the Hyksos, and the final stroke was dealt by Ahmes, founder of the 18th dynasty, about 1700 B.C., who drove out the Hyksos with great slaughter and inaugurated the New Empire. The Israelites, hated because of their close relations with the shepherd race, were forced into the service of the conquerors; "there arose a new king over Egypt which knew not Joseph." It was not, however, until the 19th dynasty that the oppression became unbearably harsh. Thothmes III, the greatest king of the 18th dynasty, was master of all Syria, advanced victoriously to the Euphrates, and took tribute from Mesopotamia. The cuneiform tablets, recently found at Tell el-Amarna, contain dispatches written by Mesopotamian princes to later Pharaohs and show that Egyptian influence was dominant as far as the Euphrates for several generations.

Under Ramses II, a king of the 19th dynasty, were built the two store cities, Pithom and Pa-Ramses, in the construction of which the Israelite slaves were employed. Pithom has been discovered and identified. The store chambers are made with three kinds of brick, some made with straw, some with reeds or "stubble," some with Nile mud alone, a striking testimony to the accuracy of the Bible narrative. It was during the reign of Ramses II that Moses, stirred with indignation at the suffering of his brethren, "refused to be called the son of Pharaoh's daughter" (Heb. 11:24), one of the noblest acts of self-sacrifice known to history. His return to Egypt probably took place soon after the death of Ramses II. In that case the Pharaoh of the Exodus was Mer-me-ptah.

After the settlement of Israel in Canaan, we read of an alliance between Solomon and Egypt (1 Kgs. 3:1; 9:16; 10:28), but the Egyptian king Sheshonk, or, as scripture calls him, Shishak, gave a welcome to Jeroboam, Solomon's adversary (1 Kgs. 11:40), and a few years afterwards conquered Rehoboam and took Jerusalem (1 Kgs. 14:25–26). Later on, Assyria and Egypt became great rival powers, and an alliance with Egypt against Assyria was for some time the policy of the kings of Judah. Isaiah opposed this alliance (Isa. 30:1–5), and it was in resisting the advance of Necho, king of Egypt, that Josiah was killed at Megiddo. After the establishment of the Persian supremacy in the East, Egypt was invaded by Cambyses and became a province of the Persian empire. It next became part of the dominions of Alexander the Great, and on the downfall of the Greek empire passed into the hands of the Romans. See Chronology.

For an account of later Jewish and Christian settlements in Egypt, see Alexandria.

Egypt, River of. Frequently mentioned in O.T. (Num. 34:5; Josh. 15:4, 47; 1 Kgs. 8:65; 2 Kgs. 24:7; etc.). The word translated river is really brook; consequently the name denotes not the Nile, but the Wady el-'Arish, on the border of Egypt, in northern Sinai.

Ehud. Son of Gera, a left-handed Benjaminite, who by a feat of valor delivered Israel from Eglon, king of Moab, after an oppression of 18 years (Judg. 3:15—4:1; see also 1 Chr. 7:10; 8:6).

Ekron. The most northerly of the Philistine towns, 9 miles from the sea, at first allotted to Judah (Josh. 15:45–46), then to Dan (19:43). Judah held it for a time (Judg. 1:18), but the Philistines recovered it (1 Sam. 5:10; see also 6:16; 7:14; 17:52; 2 Kgs. 1:2–16; Jer. 25:20; Zech. 9:5, 7).

El. Might, strength. In Hebrew and related languages it designates "the divine being." Many biblical names employ El with other words, such as Bethel ("the house of God"), Eleazar ("God has helped"), Michael ("who is like God"), Daniel ("a judge is God"), Ezekiel ("God will strengthen"), and Israel ("to prevail with God" or perhaps "let God prevail"). Possibly the best known use of El is in Elohim, a plural form signifying the "almighty" or "omnipotent," a name applied to the Father.

Elah, Valley of. Valley of the terebinths. Runs west between Zekharia and Azekah, a valley of the Shephelah, between Philistia and the hill country of Judah. Here Goliath was killed by David (1 Sam. 17:2, 19; 21:9).

Elam. (1) A mountainous country to the east of Babylonia, with the Persian Gulf on the south and southwest (Gen. 10:22; Acts 2:9). See Chedorlaomer. Its chief town was Shushan; prophecies concerning Elam are found in Isa. 11:11; 21:2; 22:6; Jer. 25:25; 49:34–39; Ezek. 32:24. (2) Several men of this name are mentioned, but only in genealogies.

Elath or Eloth. A town of Edom, on the Gulf of Aqabah, one of the "stations" of the Israelites in the wilderness (Deut. 2:8); a naval station during the monarchy (1 Kgs. 9:26; 2 Kgs. 8:20; 14:22; 16:6).

El-bethel. God of Bethel. The name given by Jacob to the place where he saw the vision on his return from Padan-aram (Gen. 35:7).

Eldad and Medad. Two of the 70 elders who assisted Moses in the wilderness. They are mentioned because they received the gift of prophecy in connection with their call, even though they didn't go as appointed to the tabernacle. When Joshua wished Moses to forbid them to prophesy, Moses said, "Would God that all the Lord's people were prophets, and that the Lord would put his spirit upon them!" (Num. 11:24–29).

Elders. The term elders is used in various ways in the Bible. In many instances in the O.T. it has reference to the older men in a tribe, usually entrusted with the governmental affairs. Their age and experience made their counsel sought often. This was not necessarily a priesthood calling. Gen. 50:7, Ruth 4:2, Matt. 15:2, and Acts 4:5 are examples of this usage.

There were ordained elders in the Melchizedek Priesthood in O.T. times, as in Ex. 24:9–11 and Num. 11:16. Among the Nephites there were also ordained elders in the priesthood (Alma 4:7, 16; 6:1; Moro. 3:1; 4:1; 6:1, 7). In the N.T., elders are mentioned as priesthood offices in the church (Acts 14:23; 1 Tim. 5:1, 17, 19; James 5:14–15). The term elder as used in the N.T. is from the Greek presybteros. The detailed duties of the ordained elders in the Church today have been defined by latter-day revelation (D&C 20:42–45; 42:44–52; 46:2; 107:12).

Elder is the proper title given to all holders of the Melchizedek Priesthood. Thus an apostle is an elder in this sense, and it is proper to speak of members of the Quorum of the Twelve or the First Quorum of the Seventy by this title (D&C 20:38; cf. 1 Pet. 5:1; 2 Jn. 1:1; 3 Jn. 1:1). See also Ministry.

Eleazar. God hath helped. (1) Third son of Aaron (Ex. 6:23); admitted to priestly office (Ex. 28:1). Eleazar and Ithamar were Aaron's chief assistants after the death of Nadab and Abihu by fire (Lev. 10:12, 16; see also Num. 20:25–29; Deut. 10:6; Josh. 14:1; 24:33). All the high priests until the Maccabaean period were descended from Eleazar, with the exception of those from Eli to Abiathar, inclusive, who belonged to the family of Ithamar. (2) Son of Abinadab, who took charge of the ark at Kirjath-jearim (1 Sam. 7:1). (3) One of David's three mighty men (2 Sam. 23:9). (4) Six others.

Election. A theological term primarily denoting God's choice of the house of Israel to be the covenant people with privileges and responsibilities, that they might become a means of blessing to the whole world (Rom. 9:11; 11:5, 7, 28). Election is an opportunity for service and is both on a national and an individual basis. On a national basis the seed of Abraham carry the gospel to the world. But it is by individual faithfulness that it is done.

The elect are chosen even "before the foundation of the world," yet no one is unconditionally elected to eternal life. Each must, for himself, hearken to the gospel and receive its ordinances and covenants from the hands of the servants of the Lord in order to obtain salvation. If one is elected but does not serve, his election could be said to have been in vain, as Paul expressed in 2 Cor. 6:1.

We see that elections are not all of the same kind. Since election has to do with God's choice of persons or groups to accomplish his purposes, some may be elected by him to one thing and some to another. Although the Lord uses certain individuals to accomplish his purposes, it does not necessarily follow that these persons will automatically receive a fulness of salvation thereby. For instance, Nebuchadnezzar and Cyrus fulfilled certain purposes in the economy of God, but they apparently did it for their own reasons and not as conscious acts of faith and righteousness. On the other hand, salvation of one's soul comes only by personal integrity and willing obedience to the laws and ordinances of the gospel of Jesus Christ. Thus there are some elections to be desired over others. An "election of grace" spoken of in D&C 84:98–102 and Rom. 11:1–5 has reference to one's situation in mortality; that is, being born at a time, at a place, and in circumstances where one will come in favorable contact with the gospel. This election took place in the premortal existence. Those who are faithful and diligent in the gospel in mortality receive an even more desirable election in this life, and become the elect of God. These receive the promise of a fulness of God's glory in eternity (D&C 84:33–41).

The concept held by many that God unconditionally elected some to be saved and some to be damned without any effort, action, or choice on their part is not correct, for the scriptures teach that it is only by faith and obedience that one's calling and election is made sure (2 Pet. 1; D&C 131:5). See also Abraham, Covenant of.

El-elohe-Israel. God, the God of Israel. The name given by Jacob to an altar that he built (Gen. 33:20).

El Elyon. A Hebrew designation meaning the most high God, as in Gen. 14:18–20, 22. It is the name for deity worshipped by Melchizedek, king of Salem, and appears for the first time in the Bible in Genesis 14:18. It is found also in Acts 16:17. Cf. D&C 59:10–12; 76:112.

Elephant. Not mentioned in canonical books, but frequently in 1 and 2 Macc. as being used for purposes of war.

Eli. High priest and judge, a descendant of Aaron through Ithamar, his younger son. He was probably the first high priest of this line, and the office remained in his family till the deprivation of Abiathar (1 Kgs. 2:26–27), when it passed back to the family of Eleazar, Aaron's eldest son. He is chiefly known to us through his connection with the early history of Samuel (1 Sam. 1–4). The blot on his character was his toleration of the wickedness of his own sons.

Eli. My God. (Matt. 27:46.) Mark 15:34 renders the word Eloi, which is perhaps a Galilean form.

Eliakim. God raiseth up. (1) Son of Hilkiah and master of Hezekiah's household (2 Kgs. 18:18, 26, 37; 19:2 [cf. Isa. 36; 37]; Isa. 22:20–25). (2) Original name of Jehoiakim, king of Judah (2 Kgs. 23:34; 2 Chr. 36:4). (3) Others of the same name (Neh. 12:41; Matt. 1:13; Luke 3:30).

Elias. There are several uses of this word in the scriptures. (1) It is the N.T. (Greek) form of Elijah (Hebrew), as in Luke 4:25–26, James 5:17, and Matt. 17:1–4. Elias in these instances can only be the ancient prophet Elijah whose ministry is recorded in 1 and 2 Kings. The curious wording of JST Mark 9:3 does not imply that the Elias at the Transfiguration was John the Baptist, but that in addition to Elijah the prophet, John the Baptist was present. (2) Elias is also a title for one who is a forerunner, for example, John the Baptist, as in JST Matt. 11:13–14, JST Matt. 17:10–13, and JST John 1:19–28. These passages are sufficiently clarified to show that anciently two Eliases were spoken of, one as a preparer and the other a restorer. John was sent to prepare the way for Jesus, Jesus himself being the Restorer who brought back the gospel and the Melchizedek Priesthood to the Jews in his day (see JST John 1:20–28, in the Appendix). In this particular instance there is reflected also the comparative functions of the Aaronic and Melchizedek priesthoods. (3) The title Elias has also been applied to many others for specific missions or restorative functions that they are to fulfill, for example, John the Revelator (D&C 77:14); and Noah or Gabriel (D&C 27:6–7, cf. Luke 1:11–20). (4) A man called Elias apparently lived in mortality in the days of Abraham, who committed the dispensation of the gospel of Abraham to Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery in the Kirtland (Ohio) Temple on April 3, 1836 (D&C 110:12). We have no specific information as to the details of his mortal life or ministry.

Thus the word Elias has many applications and has been placed upon many persons as a title pertaining to both preparatory and restorative functions. It is evident from the questions they asked that both the Jewish leaders and the disciples of Jesus knew something about the doctrine of Elias, but the fragmentary information in our current Bibles is not sufficient to give an adequate understanding of what was involved in use of the term. Only by divine revelation to the Prophet Joseph Smith is this topic brought into focus for us who live in the last days.

Eliezer. God is help. (1) Abraham's chief servant (Gen. 15:2; 24:2). (2) Son of Moses and Zipporah (Ex. 18:4; 1 Chr. 23:15, 17; 26:25). (3) Rebukes Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. 20:37); others in 1 Chr. 7:8; 15:24; 27:16; Ezra 8:16; 10:18, 23, 31; Luke 3:29.

Elihu. God (is) he. (1) Reproves Job's three friends and reasons with Job (Job 32 to 37). See Job. (2) An ancestor of Samuel (1 Sam. 1:1); called Eliab (1 Chr. 6:27) and Eliel (6:34). (3) Others in 1 Chr. 12:20 and 26:7. There was also an Elihu who lived sometime between Abraham and Moses, and who is mentioned as a bearer of the Melchizedek Priesthood prior to Moses. Nothing more is known of him today (D&C 84:8–9).

Elijah. Jehovah is my God. Called the Tishbite, but the meaning of this name is quite uncertain, no place being known from which it could be derived. He was "of the inhabitants of Gilead," the wild and beautiful hill country east of Jordan. The nature of the district and the lonely life that men lived there produced its full effect on the character of the prophet. Nothing is known of his parentage. The northern kingdom was the scene of his work, at a time when, owing to the influence of Ahab and Jezebel, the people had almost entirely forsaken the worship of Jehovah, and had become worshippers of the Phoenician god Baal (1 Kgs. 16:32; 18:19). An account of Elijah's life is found in 1 Kgs. 17–2 Kgs. 2, and 2 Chr. 21:12–15; there are also the following references to him in the N.T.: Matt. 16:14; 17:3; 27:47–49; Mark 6:14–15; 9:4; 15:35–36; Luke 4:25–26; 9:30; James 5:17.

The deep impression Elijah made upon the life of the Israelites is indicated in the fixed belief that prevails that he will return, as spoken of in Mal. 4:5. The foregoing references from the N.T. show that many mistook Jesus for Elijah returned. Among the Jews he is still an invited guest at the Passover, for whom a vacant seat is reserved and the door is opened.

His recorded words are few but forceful, and his deeds are explicit evidences of his strength of will, force of character, and personal courage. He was an example of solid faith in the Lord. With his ministry are associated such colorful events as his pronouncements upon the life and death of Ahab and Jezebel (and their subsequent fulfillment); calling down fire from heaven; sealing the heavens with no rain for three and one-half years; blessing the widow's meal and oil; and raising a boy from the dead. His life closed dramatically; "there appeared a chariot of fire, ... and Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven," (2 Kgs. 2:11–12) and thus was he translated. As a result of Elijah's ministry, Baal worship was greatly reduced as a threat to Israel. At his translation Elijah's mantle (shawl) fell on Elisha, his successor; the term "mantle of the prophet" has become a phrase indicative of prophetic succession.

We learn from latter-day revelation that Elijah held the sealing power of the Melchizedek Priesthood and was the last prophet to do so before the time of Jesus Christ. He appeared on the Mount in company with Moses (also translated) and conferred the keys of the priesthood on Peter, James, and John (Matt. 17:3). He appeared again, in company with Moses and others, on April 3, 1836, in the Kirtland (Ohio) Temple and conferred the same keys upon Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery. All of this was in preparation for the coming of the Lord, as spoken of in Malachi 4:5–6 (D&C 110:13–16). As demonstrated by his miraculous deeds, the power of Elijah is the sealing power of the priesthood by which things bound or loosed on earth are bound or loosed in heaven. Thus the keys of this power are once again operative on the earth and are used in performing all the ordinances of the gospel for the living and the dead.

Elisabeth. Mother of John the Baptist, and kinswoman of Mary (Luke 1:5–60). She belonged to the priestly family of Aaron.

Eliseus. N.T. form of Elisha (Luke 4:27).

Elisha. God of salvation or God shall save. Attendant and disciple of Elijah, and afterwards his successor (1 Kgs. 19:16–21; 2 Kgs. 3:11); but while Elijah was a child of the desert, Elisha lived in cities. He was of a gentle and affectionate disposition, and without that fiery zeal by which his master had been distinguished. They seem to have been together some six or seven years. After Elijah's translation, Elisha was the leading prophet of the northern kingdom, and the trusted adviser of the kings of Israel. His miracles form the chief part of his recorded work. These were for the most part acts of kindness and mercy and included healing a bitter spring; dividing the waters of the Jordan; obtaining water for the people and livestock to drink; multiplying the widow's oil; raising a boy from the dead; curing Naaman of leprosy; healing a poisonous pottage; causing an iron axe to float; and striking the Syrians with blindness (2 Kgs. 2:19–22 — 2 Kgs. 6:18). His ministry lasted more than 50 years, during the reigns of Jehoram, Jehu, Jehoahaz, and Joash.

Elishah. A son of Javan (Gen. 10:4; see also Ezek. 27:7); the country so called is probably the mainland of Greece.

Eloi. My God. Mark 15:34. See Eli.

Elul. The sixth month. See Calendar.

Elymas. Wise man or sorcerer. See Bar-jesus.

Embalming. The preparation of bodies for burial, for which the Egyptians had an elaborate procedure. Gen. 50:2 (concerning Jacob) is the only detailed reference in the Bible to Israelite use of the Egyptian system, although it is probable that Joseph and others were embalmed in this manner (Gen. 50:26; 2 Chr. 16:13–14). See also Burial.

Embroidery. Frequently referred to in the O.T. (e.g., Ex. 28:39; Judg. 5:30; Ps. 45:14; Ezek. 16:10, 13, 18). The pattern was sometimes woven into the material, sometimes worked by hand with a needle on cloth or linen stretched on a frame. Embroidery was used for hangings in the tabernacle, on the priests' clothing, and also in everyday dress.

Emerald. A precious stone; in Aaron's breastplate (Ex. 28:18; 39:11; see also Ezek. 27:16; 28:13; Rev. 4:3; 21:19).

Emerods. A disease, probably some bad form of hemorrhoidal tumors (Deut. 28:27; 1 Sam. 5:6, 9, 12; 6:4–5, 11).

Emims. Terrible men. A race of giants, living east of the Jordan in the time of Abraham; afterwards driven out by Moabites (Gen. 14:5; Deut. 2:10–11).

Emmanuel. See Immanuel.

Emmaus. A village 60 furlongs, or about 5 miles from Jerusalem; generally identified with the modern Kulonieh, on the road to Joppa (Luke 24:13).

Emmaus or Nicopolis. A town on the maritime plain, two-thirds of the way from Jerusalem to Lydda, the scene of the defeat of the Syrians by Judas Maccabaeus (1 Macc. 3:40; 9:50, etc.).

En-dor. A place in the territory of Issachar, but possessed by Manasseh (Josh. 17:11); the scene of the victory over Sisera (Ps. 83:10); and the home of the witch consulted by Saul the night before his fatal battle at Gilboa (1 Sam. 28:7 ff.).

En-gedi. Fountain of the kid. A place on the western shore of the Dead Sea (Josh. 15:62; 2 Chr. 20:2; Song. 1:14; Ezek. 47:10). David dwelt in the "strong holds at En-gedi" (1 Sam. 23:29; 24:1).

Engines of war (2 Chr. 26:15). They were instruments for projecting missiles from the walls of a town. The name was also applied to a battering-ram (Ezek. 26:9).

Engraving. On wood, metal, and precious stones, engraving was known to the Israelites (Ex. 28:11; 32:4; 38:23; 39:6; 1 Kgs. 7:31, 36; 2 Chr. 2:14; 3:7). Specimens dating from before the Exile and bearing short Hebrew inscriptions exist at the present day. Cf. Plates of Laban (1 Ne. 3:1–3, 12).

Enoch. The seventh from Adam. Son of Jared, and father of Methuselah (Gen. 5:18–24; Luke 3:37; Heb. 11:5). The biblical account of Enoch is scanty. It tells us that he was translated, but gives nothing of the details of his ministry. A quotation from his prophecy is found in Jude 1:14. From latter-day revelation we learn much more of Enoch; specifically of his preaching, his city called Zion, his visions, and his prophecies. See D&C 107:48–57; Moses 6–7. From these sources we observe that he was a preacher of righteousness and a vigorous exponent of the gospel of Jesus Christ. We also note that not only Enoch, but also his entire city was translated. We also become aware that Enoch was a much greater person, with a far more significant ministry than one would ever suppose from the Bible alone.

There are at least three apocalyptic works purporting to be books of Enoch; these are included in the category usually called "pseudepigrapha," meaning writings under assumed names, compiled long after the time of the supposed author. On the basis of latter-day revelation it appears there are some truths contained in the apocalyptic Enoch books. See also Pseudepigrapha.

Enos. Man. Son of Seth (Gen. 4:26; 5:6–11; Luke 3:38); called Enosh in 1 Chr. 1:1. An account of his ministry is given in D&C 107:44, 53; Moses 6:13–18.

Epaphroditus. A "fellow-worker" with Paul, visiting him in prison at Rome as the bearer of gifts from the Philippians, and taking back with him the epistle to the Philippians. Epaphras is an abbreviated form of Epaphroditus, but the Colossian teacher of that name is probably quite a different person from the Philippian delegate.

Ephah. The usual measure for dry substances; sometimes translated "measure" (Deut. 25:14, etc.). It probably contained about 8 gallons. See also Ex. 16:36.

Ephesians, Epistle to. See Pauline Epistles.

Ephesus. Capital of the Roman province of Asia and a great commercial center. Ephesus was three miles from the sea, on the banks of the navigable river Cayster. It was an important business center, much of the commerce between east and west passing along the great highway which connected Ephesus with the Euphrates. It thus became a natural center for the Christian Church in Asia Minor. The city was celebrated as the guardian of the image of Artemis or Diana (Acts 19:35); and there was a large manufacture of silver shrines of the goddess. The magnificence of her temple was proverbial. Ephesus was visited by Paul at the close of his second missionary journey (Acts 18:19); he stayed there for two years on his third journey (Acts 19), and left in consequence of a disturbance caused by silversmiths whose trade in shrines of the goddess had suffered in consequence of the growth of the Christian faith. See also Acts 20:17; 1 Cor. 15:32; 16:8; 1 Tim. 1:3; 2 Tim. 1:18; 4:12. The city was also closely connected with the life of John (cf. Rev. 1:11). See also John.

Ephod. Part of the dress of the high priest (Ex. 28:6, etc.), shaped like a waistcoat with two shoulder pieces and a girdle. It was of richly variegated material, blue, purple, and scarlet. On the shoulder pieces were two onyx stones on which were engraved the names of the 12 tribes. To the ephod was fastened the Breastplate of Judgment. An ephod of linen seems to have become the dress of all priests (1 Sam. 22:18). It was also worn by Samuel (1 Sam. 2:18), and by David when he brought up the Ark (2 Sam. 6:14). The ephod at one time became the object of idolatrous worship (Judg. 8:27; 17:5). The name may possibly in these last passages have been used to denote an image of some kind. See also Gideon.

Ephphatha. An Aramaic word, meaning be opened (Mark 7:34).

Ephraim. Fruitful. The second son of Joseph (Gen. 41:52; 46:20); but at the blessing by Jacob, Ephraim was set before Manasseh, the elder son (48:19–20). Joshua belonged to this tribe, and to him was due much of its subsequent greatness. After the settlement in Canaan, the district assigned to the two sons of Joseph included some of the richest land in the country, crossed by several important highways, and having within its limits historic sites like Shechem, Ebal, Gerizim, and Shiloh. Ephraim was notorious for its jealousy of any success gained by any other tribe (Judg. 8:1; 12:1; cf. 2 Sam. 19:41–43). It was Ephraim's jealousy of Judah that in great measure brought about the separation of the two kingdoms, and that Rehoboam in vain tried to satisfy by going to Shechem to be crowned.

Ephraim was given the birthright in Israel (1 Chr. 5:1–2; Jer. 31:9), and in the last days it has been the tribe of Ephraim's privilege first to bear the message of the restoration of the gospel to the world and to gather scattered Israel (Deut. 33:13–17; D&C 64:36; 133:26–34). The time will come when, through the operation of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the envy of Judah and Ephraim shall cease (Isa. 11:12–13).

Ephraim. A city to which our Lord retired with his disciples (John 11:54); probably in hill country northeast of Jerusalem, perhaps = Ophrah.

Ephraim, Gate of. One of the gates of Jerusalem, probably on the north side of the city (2 Kgs. 14:13; 2 Chr. 25:23; Neh. 8:16; 12:39).

Ephraim, Mount. The hill country of which Gerizim and Ebal are the highest points.

Ephraim, Stick of. A prophetic reference to the Book of Mormon as a record of one portion of the tribe of Ephraim that was led from Jerusalem to America about 600 B.C. When joined with the stick of Judah (the Bible), the two records form a unified, complementary testimony of the Lord Jesus Christ, his resurrection from the grave, and his divine work among these two segments of the house of Israel. See JST Gen. 50:24–26; Ezek. 37:15–19; 2 Ne. 3; 29; D&C 27:5.

Ephraim, Wood of. A forest of Gilead, east of Jordan, in which the battle was fought between armies of David and Absalom (2 Sam. 18:6).

Ephrath, Ephratah. Fruitful. Ancient name of Bethlehem (Gen. 35:16, 19; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; Ps. 132:6; Micah 5:2).

Epicureans. Derived their name from a Greek philosopher, Epicurus (342–271 B.C.). He taught that pleasure is the true end at which men should aim, and that the experience of the bodily senses is the safest guide. The Epicureans and Stoics (Acts 17:18) were the chief schools of philosophy at the beginning of the Christian era. The Epicureans had many points of belief in common with the Sadducees.

Epiphanes. See Antiochus.

Epistles. Several kinds are spoken of in the scriptures. (1) Epistles of commendation, which were letters by which travelers were commended by one branch of the Church to the members of another branch, as in Acts 18:27 and 2 Cor. 3:1. (2) A letter or decree such as that announcing the decision of the Jerusalem conference negating circumcision as a requirement for gentiles to become members of the Church, as mentioned in Acts 15:23–29; 16:4; 21:25. (3) An epistle in its best sense is more than a letter; it is a formal teaching instrument. Twenty-one of the 27 books of the N.T. are epistles. See General Epistles; Pauline Epistles.

Erastus. (1) An attendant of Paul at Ephesus (Acts 19:22; 2 Tim. 4:20). (2) The public treasurer at Corinth, and a Christian convert (Rom. 16:23).

Esaias. The N.T. (Greek) form of the name Isaiah, as in Luke 4:17 and Acts 8:30. Also an ancient prophet who lived in the days of Abraham, and who was blessed by him. He was a bearer of the Melchizedek Priesthood (D&C 84:11–13).

Esarhaddon. King of Assyria, 680–668 B.C.; son and successor of Sennacherib. He rebuilt Babylon and made large conquests in Syria, Arabia, and Egypt. Manasseh, king of Judah, became his tributary (2 Kgs. 19:37; Isa. 37:38; Ezra 4:2). He was succeeded by his son Assurbanipal or Asnapper.

Esau. Hairy. Elder son of Isaac and twin brother of Jacob. The two brothers were rivals from their birth and became the ancestors of rival nations, the Israelites and Edomites. Esau sold to Jacob his birthright (Gen. 25:33), by which he lost both the leadership of the tribe and also the covenant blessing (Gen. 27:28–29, 36; Heb. 12:16–17). He married against the wishes of his parents (Gen. 26:34–35; see also 28:9; 36:2), and settled in Mount Seir. He was living there on Jacob's return from Padan-aram (Gen. 32:3–33; 35:1, 29). By that time he saw clearly that the covenant blessing and the land of Canaan would not be his, and the brothers separated in friendly fashion. Of Esau's subsequent history nothing is known. For his descendants, see Edom.

Esdraelon. The Greek form of the Hebrew word Jezreel. The "great plain of Esdraelon" is also known in the O.T. as the "valley of Megiddo"; it separates the hills of Samaria from those of Galilee, and is the most fertile part of Palestine. It was crossed by several important highways, and for that reason often provided a battleground (Judg. 4; 5; 7; 1 Sam. 31; 2 Chr. 35:20–27; cf. Rev. 16:16). See also Megiddo.

Esdras. See Apocrypha.

Essenes. A sect of the Jews, not mentioned in the N.T., dwelling principally in secluded settlements on the shores of the Dead Sea. They practiced an ascetic form of life, abstaining from marriage, wine, and animal food. They took no part in the temple worship, having priests and ministers of their own. Our principal sources of information about the Essenes are Josephus, Philo Judaeus, and Pliny the Elder. Some of the Dead Sea scrolls may be their records.

Esther, Book of. Contains the history that led to the institution of the Jewish feast of Purim. The story belongs to the time of the Captivity. Ahasuerus, king of Persia (most probably Xerxes), had decided to divorce his queen Vashti because she refused to show her beauty to the people and the princes. Esther, adopted daughter of Mordecai the Jew, was chosen as her successor, on account of her beauty. Haman, chief man at the king's court, hated Mordecai, and having cast lots to find a suitable day, obtained a decree to put all Jews to death. Esther, at great personal risk, revealed her own nationality and obtained a reversal of the decree. It was decided that two days of feasting should be annually observed in honor of this deliverance. They were called Purim, because of the lot (Pur) that Haman had cast for the destruction of the Jews.

The book contains no direct reference to God, but he is everywhere taken for granted, as the book infers a providential destiny (Esth. 4:13–16), and speaks of fasting for deliverance. There have been doubts at times as to whether it should be admitted to the canon of scripture. But the book has a religious value as containing a most striking illustration of God's overruling providence in history, and as exhibiting a very high type of courage, loyalty, and patriotism.

Ethanim. The seventh month (1 Kgs. 8:2). See Calendar.

Ethiopia (or Cush). Extended from Syene on the frontier of Egypt southward to the neighborhood of Khartoum, at the junction of the Blue and White Nile. It included the modern Nubia, with the states to the south, and perhaps part of Abyssinia (Gen. 2:13; Num. 12:1; 2 Kgs. 19:9; Isa. 18:1; Jer. 13:23; Acts 8:27).

Eunice. A Christian Jewess of Lystra, mother of Timothy (Acts 16:1; 2 Tim. 1:5).

Eunuch. A class of emasculated men attached to the courts of eastern rulers. They were employed to watch over the harems, and also were often given positions as trusted officials. Eunuchs are mentioned in 2 Kgs. 20:18; Isa. 39:7; 56:4; Jer. 38:7–13; 41:16; Matt. 19:12; Acts 8:27–38.

Euphrates. An important river that rises in the mountains of Armenia and falls into the Persian Gulf, frequently called in scripture "the River." It provided a route of communication between east and west. It was the boundary of the land promised to the seed of Abraham (Gen. 15:18; Deut. 1:7; Josh. 1:4; 1 Chr. 5:9); this boundary was reached in the time of David (2 Sam. 8:3; 1 Chr. 18:3). The stronghold of Carchemish was built at the ford of the river, and was a position of great importance in military operations (2 Chr. 35:20; Jer. 46:2). On the banks of the Euphrates stood the great city of Babylon.

Euroclydon. A north wind frequently experienced in the eastern Mediterranean, accompanied by terrific gusts and squalls. In the storm mentioned (Acts 27:14), it probably blew from the northeast or east-northeast.

Eutychus. A lad at Troas who fell from a window and was restored by Paul (Acts 20:9).

Evangelist. In popular usage throughout Christendom, an evangelist is one who proclaims the gospel. The idea of traveling to preach is also associated with current usage. In the popular sense, the writers of the four Gospel records are called evangelists, as also are Philip (Acts 21:8) and Timothy (2 Tim. 4:5). Paul lists the office of evangelist in the organizational structure of the Church (Eph. 4:11).

However, in latter-day revelation an evangelist is defined as a patriarch (D&C 107:39–53). Joseph Smith taught that "an Evangelist is a Patriarch, even the oldest man of the blood of Joseph or of the seed of Abraham. Wherever the Church of Christ is established in the earth, there should be a Patriarch for the benefit of the posterity of the Saints" (HC 3:381).

Eve. The name given in Gen. 2:21–22; 3:20 to the first woman; see also Gen. 3 (cf. 2 Cor. 11:3; 1 Tim. 2:13); 4:1, 25. The name means "the mother of all living" (Moses 4:26; cf. 1 Ne. 5:11). She was the wife of Adam and will share eternal glory with him. Eve's recognition of the necessity of the fall and the joys of redemption is recorded in Moses 5:11. Latter-day revelation confirms the biblical account of Eve and gives us an awareness of her nobility.

Evil-merodach. Son of Nebuchadnezzar and king of Babylon 561–559 B.C. (2 Kgs. 25:27; Jer. 52:31). He was killed by his brother-in-law, Neriglissar, who then became king.

Exodus, Book of. The word Exodus is Greek, and means a departure; the book is so called because it describes the departure of the Israelites out of Egypt. A continuation of the narrative in Genesis, it consists of two principal divisions: (1) historical, chs. 1—18; (2) legislative, 19–40.

1. The first division tells us of the oppression of Israel in Egypt, under a dynasty of kings that "knew not Joseph"; the early history and call of Moses; the various steps by means of which the deliverance was at last accomplished; the exodus itself, along with the institution of the passover as a commemoration of it, and the sanctification of the firstborn (12:37—13:16); the march to the Red Sea, destruction of Pharaoh's army, and Moses' song of victory (13:17—15:21); events on the journey from the Red Sea to Sinai; the bitter waters of Marah, the giving of quails and the manna, the observance of the Sabbath, the miraculous gift of water at Rephidim, and the battle there with the Amalekites (15:22—17:16); the arrival of Jethro in the camp and his advice as to the civil government of the people (18).

2. The second division describes the solemn events at Sinai. The people are set apart "as a kingdom of priests and an holy nation" (19:6); the Ten Commandments are given, and are followed by the code of laws intended to regulate the social life of the people (20–23); an Angel is promised as their guide to the promised land, and the covenant between God and Moses and the 70 elders is ratified (23:20—24:18); instructions are given respecting the tabernacle, its furniture and worship (25:1—31:18). Then follows the account of the sin of the people in the matter of the golden calf (32:1—34:35); and lastly, the construction of the tabernacle and provision for its services (35:1—40:33). The book of Exodus thus gives the early history of the nation in three clearly marked stages: first, a nation enslaved; then a nation redeemed; lastly, a nation set apart and, through the blending of its religious and political life, consecrated to the service of God.

Exorcist. A person who professes to have the power to drive out evil spirits by means of a spell (Acts 19:13).

Ezekias. = Hezekiah (Matt. 1:9–10).

Ezekiel. God will strengthen. A priest of the family of Zadok, and one of the captives carried away by Nebuchadnezzar along with Jehoiachin. He settled at Tel Abib on the Chebar, and prophesied during a period of 22 years, 592–570 B.C. The book of Ezekiel has three main divisions: (1) 1–24, prophecies of judgment against Jerusalem and the nation; (2) 25–39, prophecies of restoration; (3) 40–48, visions of the reconstruction of the temple and its worship. Chs. 1—39 are similar in manner and contents to other prophetic writings; chs. 40—48 are unique in prophecy.

Among the notable teachings of Ezekiel are chs. 3 and 18, which show the significance of a prophet's warning and the individual responsibility of every person for the consequences of his own behavior; ch. 37, which depicts the valley of dry bones, each bone coming together, bone to his bone, in the resurrection, the restoration of Israel, and the uniting of the stick (record) or Ephraim with the stick of Judah; and chs. 47—48, the description of the latter-day temple in Jerusalem, the river running from the temple into the Dead Sea to heal it, and the building of a city "foursquare." Ezekiel was a man of many visions and spoke much about the future restoration of Israel and the glory of the millennial reign of the Lord. The authenticity of his writings is specifically confirmed by latter-day revelation, as in D&C 29:21.

Ezion-gaber or -geber. A place of encampment for the Israelites during the exodus (Num. 33:35; Deut. 2:8); afterwards one of the headquarters of Solomon's navy (1 Kgs. 9:26; 22:48; 2 Chr. 8:17; 20:36). It was in the extreme south of the country of Edom, at the head of the Gulf of Aqabah.

Ezra. A famous priest and scribe who brought back part of the exiles from captivity (Ezra 7–10; Neh. 8; 12). The object of his mission was "to teach in Israel statutes and judgments." In 458 B.C. he obtained from Artaxerxes an important edict (Ezra 7:12–26) allowing him to take to Jerusalem any Jewish exiles who cared to go, along with offerings for the temple with which he was entrusted, and giving to the Jews various rights and privileges. He was also directed to appoint magistrates and judges. On arriving in Jerusalem his first reform was to cause the Jews to separate from their foreign wives, and a list is given of those who had offended in this way (Ezra 10). The later history of Ezra is found in the book of Nehemiah, which is a sequel to the book of Ezra. Along with Nehemiah he took steps to instruct the people in the Mosaic law (Neh. 8). Hitherto "the law" had been to a great extent the exclusive possession of the priests. It was now brought within the reach of every Jew. The open reading of "the book of the law" was a new departure, and marked the law as the center of Jewish national life.

A good many traditions have gathered round the name of Ezra. He is said to have formed the canon of Hebrew scripture and to have established an important national council, called the Great Synagogue, over which he presided. But for none of these traditions is there trustworthy evidence. The Jews of later days were inclined to attribute to the influence of Ezra every religious development between the days of Nehemiah and the Maccabees.

The book of Ezra contains also an introductory section (chs. 1—6) describing events that happened from 60 to 80 years before the arrival of Ezra in Jerusalem, that is, the decree of Cyrus, 537 B.C., and the return of Jews under Zerubbabel; the attempt to build the temple and the hindrances due to the Samaritans; the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah, and the completion of the temple, 516 B.C. There is no record in the book of any events between this date and the mission of Ezra.

Religious values in the book of Ezra are found in the teaching that (1) the promises of the Lord through his prophets shall all be fulfilled (Ezra 1:1; cf. Jer. 25:13; 29:10; D&C 1:37–38; 5:20); (2) discipline and patience are borne of disappointment, as one expectation after another was frustrated; (3) there is eternal significance in everyday life; (4) preparation is needed for the rule of Messiah, the law being the schoolmaster to bring men to Christ.

Faith. Faith is to hope for things which are not seen, but which are true (Heb. 11:1; Alma 32:21), and must be centered in Jesus Christ in order to produce salvation. To have faith is to have confidence in something or someone. The Lord has revealed himself and his perfect character, possessing in their fulness all the attributes of love, knowledge, justice, mercy, unchangeableness, power, and every other needful thing, so as to enable the mind of man to place confidence in him without reservation. Faith is kindled by hearing the testimony of those who have faith (Rom. 10:14–17). Miracles do not produce faith, but strong faith is developed by obedience to the gospel of Jesus Christ; in other words, faith comes by righteousness, although miracles often confirm one's faith.

Faith is a principle of action and of power, and by it one can command the elements and/or heal the sick, or influence any number of circumstances when occasion warrants (Jacob 4:4–7). Even more important, by faith one obtains a remission of sins and eventually can stand in the presence of God.

All true faith must be based upon correct knowledge or it cannot produce the desired results. Faith in Jesus Christ is the first principle of the gospel and is more than belief, since true faith always moves its possessor to some kind of physical and mental action; it carries an assurance of the fulfillment of the things hoped for. A lack of faith leads one to despair, which comes because of iniquity.

Although faith is a gift, it must be cultured and sought after until it grows from a tiny seed to a great tree. The effects of true faith in Jesus Christ include (1) an actual knowledge that the course of life one is pursuing is acceptable to the Lord (see Heb. 11:4); (2) a reception of the blessings of the Lord that are available to man in this life; and (3) an assurance of personal salvation in the world to come. These things involve individual and personal testimony, guidance, revelation, and spiritual knowledge. Where there is true faith there are miracles, visions, dreams, healings, and all the gifts of God that he gives to his saints. Jesus pointed out some obstacles to faith in John 5:44 and 12:39–42 (cf. James 1:6–8).

The most complete and systematic exposition on faith is the Lectures on Faith, prepared for and delivered in the School of the Prophets in Kirtland, Ohio, in 1832. Other references to faith include JST Gen. 14:26–36; Rom. 10:14–17; 2 Cor. 5:7; Eph. 2:8–9; Heb. 11:1–40; James 2:14–26; 1 Pet. 1:8–9; Enos 1:6–8; Alma 32; Moro. 10:11; D&C 46:13–16.

Fall of Adam. The process by which mankind became mortal on this earth. The event is recorded in Gen. 2, 3, 4; and Moses 3, 4. The fall of Adam is one of the most important occurrences in the history of man. Before the fall, Adam and Eve had physical bodies but no blood. There were no sin, no death, and no children among any of the earthly creations. With the eating of the "forbidden fruit," Adam and Eve became mortal, sin entered, blood formed in their bodies, and death became a part of life. Adam became the "first flesh" upon the earth (Moses 3:7), meaning that he and Eve were the first to become mortal. After Adam fell, the whole creation fell and became mortal. Adam's fall brought both physical and spiritual death into the world upon all mankind (Hel. 14:16–17).

The fall was no surprise to the Lord. It was a necessary step in the progress of man, and provisions for a Savior had been made even before the fall had occurred. Jesus Christ came to atone for the fall of Adam and also for man's individual sins.

Latter-day revelation supports the biblical account of the fall, showing that it was a historical event that literally occurred in the history of man. Many points in latter-day revelation are also clarified that are not discernible from the Bible. Among other things it makes clear that the fall is a blessing, and that Adam and Eve should be honored in their station as the first parents of the earth. Significant references are 2 Ne. 2:15–26; 9:6–21; Mosiah 3:11–16; Alma 22:12–14; 42:2–15; D&C 29:34–44; Moses 5:9–13. See also Flesh.

Family. The Bible is family oriented. The first man and woman—Adam and Eve—were a family. When they were cast out of the Garden of Eden, Adam ate his bread by the sweat of his brow; and Eve, his wife, labored with him (Moses 5:1). All the early recorded events in the life of Adam and Eve show them doing things together (see, for example, Moses 4 and 5). The history of Israel begins with the family of Abraham. He is highly esteemed of the Lord as a father and teaches his children properly (Gen. 18:17–19). Family life is safeguarded with such divine commandments as Ex. 20:12, 14–17; 21:15–17. The frequent genealogical lists in the scriptures give evidence of the importance that is placed on family. The book of Proverbs offers many instructions directed toward the family, such as Prov. 13:1, 22; 15:5, 20; 19:13, 26.

Jesus' teachings were directed to a family type of life, as in Matt. 5:45; 10:21; 13:57; 19:3–9; Mark 10:2–9; Luke 6:36; 15:31; John 19:27. The Lord frequently referred to his Father, and emphasized the "Fatherliness" of God. Paul and Peter gave much counsel about the duties of husbands and wives, parents and children (Eph. 6:1–4; Col. 3:18–21; 1 Pet. 3:1–7).

Latter-day revelation confirms all that the Bible teaches about the family and adds the most important truth that through the gospel of Jesus Christ the family can be sealed together in a permanent relationship for time and all eternity (D&C 132).

Fan. A winnowing fan, i.e., a great fork with which grain was thrown up against the wind to separate it from the chaff. John made use of this procedure in a symbolic reference to the coming judgment to be exercised by the Messiah (Luke 3:17).

Farthing. See Money.

Fasts. Fasting, a voluntary abstinence from food, is a principle of the gospel of Jesus Christ for developing spiritual strength; it has always existed among true believers. Without doubt it was practiced by Adam and his posterity from the beginning whenever they had the gospel among them. The early portion of the O.T. does not mention fasting, but this is due to the scarcity of the record rather than the absence of the practice. There are frequent references to fasting in the later portions of the O.T. and in the N.T.

The Day of Atonement appears to be the only fast ordered by the law. Other fasts were instituted during the exile (Zech. 7:3–5; 8:19); and after the return, fasting is shown to be a regular custom (Luke 5:33; 18:12). It was regarded as a natural way of showing sorrow. Along with the fasting were often combined other ceremonies, e.g., rending of the garments, putting on sackcloth, refraining from washing the face or anointing with oil (2 Sam. 12:20; 1 Kgs. 21:27; Isa. 58:5). All such observances were, of course, liable to become mere formalities, and the danger of this was recognized by the prophets (Isa. 58:3–7; Joel 2:12–13; Zech. 7:5–6; cf. Matt. 6:16–18).

The Day of Atonement was the 10th day of the 7th month. The directions for its observance are given in Lev. 16; 23:26–32; cf. Num. 29:7–11; Ex. 30:10. The day was kept as a national fast. The high priest, clothed in white linen, took a bullock as a sin offering and a ram as a burnt offering for himself and his house; and two he-goats as a sin offering and a ram as a burnt offering for the congregation of Israel. He presented the bullock and the two goats before the door of the tabernacle. He then cast lots upon the two goats. One was to be for the Lord for a sin offering. The other was for Azazel (the completely separate one, the evil spirit regarded as dwelling in the desert), to be sent away alive into the wilderness. He then killed the bullock, his own sin offering, and, taking a censer full of live coals from off the brazen altar with two handfuls of incense into the Holy of Holies, cast the incense on the coals there, so that the cloud of smoke might cover the mercy seat and, as it were, hide him from God. He then took of the blood of the bullock and sprinkled it once on the east part of the mercy seat (as an atonement for the priesthood), and seven times before the mercy seat (as an atonement for the Holy of Holies itself). Then he killed the goat, the congregation's sin offering, and sprinkled its blood in the same manner, with corresponding objects. Similar sprinklings were made with the blood of both animals (bullock and goat) on the altar of incense (Lev. 16:15; Ex. 30:10) to make an atonement for the Holy Place. No one besides the high priest was allowed to be present in the tabernacle while these acts of atonement were going on. Lastly, an atonement was made for the altar of burnt offering in a similar manner. The goat for Azazel was then brought before the altar of burnt offering. Over it the high priest confessed all the sins of the people of Israel, after which it was sent by the hand of a man into the wilderness to bear away their iniquities into a solitary land. This ceremony signified the sending away of the sins of the people now expiated to the Evil One to convince him that they could no more be brought up in judgment against the people before God. Then the high priest took off his linen garments, bathed, put on his official garments, and offered the burnt offerings of two rams for himself and his people.

In Heb. 9:6–28 a contrast is drawn between the work of the high priest on the Day of Atonement, and the work of Christ, the great High Priest, who offered once for all the perfect sacrifice of himself. The sacrifices provided an annual "remembrance" of sin (Heb. 10:3–4), while the sacrifice of Christ removes the sin and leads to the complete sanctification of the believer (9:12, 14, 26; 10:10–18).

Our Lord taught the religious value of fasting (Matt. 6:16–18; 9:15; Luke 4:2). We find it practiced in the early Christian Church (Acts 13:1–3; 14:23; 1 Cor. 7:5; 2 Cor. 6:5; 11:27).

Fasting is confirmed in latter-day revelation as an ancient practice, but more significantly, the spiritual benefits are described more fully than in the Bible. The Book of Mormon, especially, is a fruitful source of information. See Alma 5:46; 6:6; 10:7; 17:3, 9; 28:6; 30:2; 45:1; Hel. 3:35; 9:10; 3 Ne. 27:1; 4 Ne. 1:12; Moro. 6:5; also D&C 59:14; 88:76.

Fear. Care should be taken to distinguish between two different uses of this word. The "fear of the Lord" is frequently spoken of as part of man's duty (e.g., Ps. 111:10; Eccl. 12:13; Isa. 11:2–3; Luke 1:50); it is also described as "godly fear" (Heb. 12:28). In such passages fear is equivalent to reverence, awe, worship, and is therefore an essential part of the attitude of mind in which we ought to stand toward the All-holy God. On the other hand fear is spoken of as something unworthy of a child of God, something that "perfect love casteth out" (1 Jn. 4:18). The first effect of Adam's sin was that he was afraid (Gen. 3:10). Sin destroys that feeling of confidence God's child should feel in a loving Father, and produces instead a feeling of shame and guilt. Ever since the Fall God has been teaching men not to fear, but with penitence to ask forgiveness in full confidence of receiving it.

Feasts. The law commanded that three times a year all the males of the covenant people were to appear before the Lord in the place that he should choose, that is, in the Feast of Unleavened Bread, in the Feast of Weeks, and in the Feast of Tabernacles (Ex. 23:14–17; Deut. 16:16). This ordinance presupposed a state of settled peace rarely if ever realized in the history of the people in O.T. times. It was not and could not be generally or even frequently observed. Elkanah, a pious Israelite of the times of the later Judges, went up to Shiloh once a year (1 Sam. 1:3). In N.T. times the case was altered. The Jews came up from all parts of the land with much more regularity to keep their three great feasts.

The Feast of the Passover was instituted to commemorate the passing over the houses of the children of Israel in Egypt when God smote the firstborn of the Egyptians, and more generally the redemption from Egypt (Ex. 12:27; 13:15).

The first passover differed somewhat from those succeeding it. On the 10th Abib ( = March or April) a male lamb (or kid) of the first year, without blemish, was chosen for each family or two small families in Israel. It was slain by the whole congregation between the evenings (i.e., between sunset and total darkness) of the 14th Abib, and its blood sprinkled on the lintel and two sideposts of the doors of the houses. It was roast with fire, and no bone of it was broken. It was eaten standing, ready for a journey, and in haste, with unleavened loaves and bitter herbs. Anything left was burned with fire, and no persons went out of their houses until the morning.

Three great changes or developments were made almost immediately in the nature of the Feast of the Passover: (1) It lost its domestic character, and became a sanctuary feast. (2) A seven days' feast of unleavened bread (hence its usual name), with special offerings, was added (Ex. 12:15; Num. 28:16–25). The first and seventh days were Sabbaths and days of holy convocation. (3) The feast was connected with the harvest. On the morrow after the Sabbath ( = 16th Abib probably) a sheaf of the firstfruits of the harvest (barley) was waved before the Lord (Lev. 23:10–14).

In later times the following ceremonies were added: (1) The history of the redemption from Egypt was related by the head of the household (cf. Ex. 12:26–27). (2) Four cups of wine mixed with water were drunk at different stages of the feast (cf. Luke 22:17, 20; 1 Cor. 10:16, the cup of blessing). (3) Pss. 113–118 (the Hallel) were sung. (4) The various materials of the feast were dipped in a sauce. (5) The feast was not eaten standing, but reclining. (6) The Levites (at least on some occasions) slew the sacrifices. (7) Voluntary peace offerings (called Chagigah) were offered. Of these there are traces in the law and in the history (Num. 10:10; 2 Chr. 30:22–24; 35:13). (8) A second passover for those prevented by ceremonial uncleanness from keeping the passover at the proper time was instituted by Moses (Num. 9:10) on the 14th day of the second month. This was called the Little Passover.

The passovers of historical importance are few in number. After the passovers in Egypt (Ex. 12), the desert (Num. 9), and Canaan (Gilgal) after the circumcision of the people (Josh. 5), no celebration is recorded till the times of Hezekiah (2 Chr. 30). In later times the passovers were remarkable, (1) for the number of Jews from all parts of the world who attended them, (2) for the tumults that arose and the terrible consequent massacres. Two passovers of the deepest interest were the passover of the death of our Lord, and the last passover of the Jewish dispensation. Titus with his army shut up in Jerusalem those who came to keep the latter. The city was thus overcrowded, and the sufferings of the besieged by famine, etc., were terribly increased. Since the destruction of Jerusalem the Jews have kept the Feast of Unleavened Bread but not the Feast of the Passover—that is, they do not offer the sacrificial lamb. The passover is still eaten by the colony of Samaritans on Gerizim.

Fifty days (Lev. 23:16) after the Feast of the Passover, the Feast of Pentecost was kept. During those 50 days the harvest of corn was being gathered in. It is called (Ex. 23:16) "the feast of harvest, the firstfruits of thy labours" and (Deut. 16:10) "the feast of weeks." The feast lasted a single day, which was a day of holy convocation (Lev. 23:21); and the characteristic rite was the new meal offering, that is, two loaves of leavened bread made of fine flour of new wheat. Special animal sacrifices were also made (Lev. 23:18) and freewill offerings (Deut. 16:10). The festival was prolonged in later times, and huge numbers of Jews attended it. Of this the narrative in Acts 2 is sufficient proof. It had the same evil reputation as the Feast of the Passover for tumults and massacres. We have no record of the celebration of this feast in the Old Testament.

The Feast of Tabernacles (Lev. 23:34) or of Ingathering (Ex. 23:16), called by later Jews the Feast (John 7:37), and reckoned by them to be the greatest and most joyful of all, was celebrated on the fifteenth to twenty-first days of the seventh month. To the seven days was added an eighth ("the last day, that great day of the feast") (John 7:37), a day of holy convocation, which marked the ending not only of this particular feast, but of the whole festival season. The events celebrated were the sojourning of the children of Israel in the wilderness (Lev. 23:43), and the gathering-in of all the fruits of the year (Ex. 23:16). The sacrifices prescribed by the law were more numerous than for any other feast, and impressive ceremonies were added in later times, that is, (1) the drawing of water from Siloam and its libation on the altar (of this it was said that he who has not seen the joy of the drawing of water at the Feast of Tabernacles does not know what joy is); and (2) the illumination of the temple courts by four golden candelabra. It is probably to these ceremonies that our Lord refers in John 7:37 and 8:12. (3) The making of a canopy of willows over the altar. The characteristic rite of the Feast of Tabernacles was the dwelling in booths made of the boughs of trees. This rite seems to have been neglected from the time of Joshua to the time of Ezra (Neh. 8:17). It is practiced by the Jews of modern times. Remarkable celebrations of the Feast of Tabernacles took place at the opening of Solomon's temple (1 Kgs. 8:2; 2 Chr. 5:3; 7:8), and in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh. 8:14). Jeroboam adapted this feast to the later seasons of the northern kingdom (1 Kgs. 12:32). Zechariah in prophetic imagery represents the nations as coming up to Jerusalem to keep the Feast of Tabernacles, and describes the curse that should fall on those who did not come (Zech. 14:16–19).

The Feast of Purim (called Mordecai's Day, 2 Macc. 15:36) was instituted by Mordecai and confirmed by Esther, to commemorate the overthrow of Haman and the failure of his plots against the Jews (Esth. 9:20–32). The name Purim ( = lots) was given in mockery of the lots Haman had cast to secure a day of good omen for his enterprise (Esth. 3:7). The feast was held on the 14th and 15th of Adar (the twelfth month). The 13th of Adar, which was originally a feast to commemorate Nicanor's death (1 Macc. 7:49; 2 Macc. 15:36), afterwards became a fast, called the Fast of Esther, in preparation for the feast. During the feast the whole book of Esther was read in the synagogues, and all Israelites—men, women, children, and slaves—were required to be present. The reading was accompanied by clapping of hands, stamping of feet, and clamorous curses on Haman and the Jews' enemies, and blessings on Mordecai, Esther, etc. The feast was celebrated with great joy, shown by distributing gifts.

The Feast of the Dedication was instituted in the days of Judas Maccabaeus to commemorate the dedication of the new altar of burnt offering after the profanation of the temple and the old altar by Antiochus Epiphanes. The feast began on the 25th Chisleu, the anniversary of the profanation in 168 B.C., and the dedication in 165 B.C., and lasted eight days, during which no fast or mourning for any calamity or bereavement was allowed. It was kept like the Feast of Tabernacles with great gladness and with the bearing of the branches of palms and of other trees. There was also a general illumination, from which circumstance the feast received the name Feast of Lights. The Jews attempted to stone Jesus when he was walking in the temple in Solomon's porch during this feast (John 10:22).

In addition to these annual feasts, there were the weekly Sabbaths to be observed, commemorating God's rest from creation, and also the redemption from bondage in Egypt (Deut. 5:15). On these days the daily sacrifices were doubled, the loaves of the shewbread were changed, and the people abstained from all manner of work and a holy assembly was held. See Sabbath.

The law also directed that at the New Moons special sacrifices should be offered (Num. 10:10; Lev. 23:24–25; 1 Sam. 20:5–6, 29; 2 Kgs. 4:23; Amos 8:5). As the days of the celebration of all the great Feasts of the Jews were reckoned by the moon, the exact time of the appearance of the new moons was a matter of importance. Watchers were placed on the heights around Jerusalem to bring the news of its appearance with all speed to the Sanhedrin, who proclaimed it as soon as satisfactory evidence was given. Watchfires on the hilltops told the news to distant cities. It is said the Samaritans, to cause confusion, lighted fires at wrong times. See also Jubilee, Year of; Sabbatical Year.

With regard to the festivals of the Christian Church, we have evidence of the weekly observance of the Lord's Day (Acts 20:7; 1 Cor. 16:1–2; Heb. 10:25; Rev. 1:10). The old Jewish festivals continued to be observed and had now additional associations connected with them (1 Cor. 5:7–8; Acts 2:1 ff.; 18:21; 20:16). The other present-day Christian festivals date from a time subsequent to the N.T. and are not authorized by the scripture.

Felix. Procurator of Judaea at the time of Paul's arrest by the Roman military authorities (Acts 23:24). He investigated the case and heard Paul speak in his own defense (Acts 24), but put off giving any decision, his reason being that he had "more exact knowledge concerning the Way," i.e., he knew more about the case and about Christianity than the prosecutors had told him. He hoped Paul would have offered him some bribe; but none being offered on his recall from Palestine, he left the apostle still in prison. See also Chronological Tables; Drusilla.

Felloes. The curved pieces of wood forming the rim of a wheel (1 Kgs. 7:33).

Festus. Porcius Festus, successor of Felix as procurator of Judaea (Acts 24:27). Finding Paul in prison at Caesarea, he proposed to try him in Jerusalem. To avoid such a trial, Paul appealed to Caesar. While waiting for an opportunity to send him to Rome, Festus was visited by Herod Agrippa. Paul was brought before them and made a speech in his own defense. Festus died two years after his appointment to Judaea. See also Chronological Tables.

Fiery serpents. Snakes marked with flamelike spots, or whose bite caused acute inflammation (Num. 21:6). The Lord sent these upon the children of Israel to "straiten them," and he prepared a way that those who were bitten might be healed by looking at the serpent of brass that Moses raised up before them, which was a symbol of the Redeemer being lifted upon the cross (John 3:14–15). The event is confirmed in latter-day revelation (1 Ne. 17:41; 2 Ne. 25:20). (See also Serpent, Brazen.)

Fig tree. Everywhere common in Palestine, both wild and cultivated. Figs were an important food. The tree is one of the earliest to show its fruitbuds, which appear before the leaves; thus a fig tree with leaves would be expected to also have fruit. Jesus' cursing the fig tree for its fruitlessness (Mark 11:12–13, 20–23) was an allusion to the fruitlessness of Israel. Also, as the tree is a "late leafer," the time when the leaves appear indicates that summer is "nigh at hand" (cf. Matt. 24:32–33; D&C 45:37–38; JS-M 1:38–39). For other references to figs, see Gen. 3:7; 1 Kgs. 4:25; 2 Kgs. 20:7; John 1:47–50. The sycomore, spoken of in Isa. 9:10, Amos 7:14, and Luke 19:4 was a variety of fig tree.

Fir. Spoken of as a tree of fine growth (2 Kgs. 19:23; Isa. 37:24); as supplying timber for building purposes (1 Kgs. 6:15, 34; 2 Chr. 3:5); and as wood from which musical instruments were made (2 Sam. 6:5).

Fire. Frequently the symbol of God's presence, revealed either in mercy or in judgment (1) of his glory (Ex. 13:21–22; Ezek. 1:4, 13; 10:6–7; Dan. 7:9; 10:6); (2) of his holiness (Deut. 4:24; Heb. 12:29); (3) of his presence to protect (2 Kgs. 6:17; Zech. 2:5); (4) of his judgments (Isa. 66:15–16; Zech. 13:9; Mal. 3:2; 1 Cor. 3:13); (5) the punishment of the wicked (Matt. 18:9; 25:41; Mark 9:43–48; Rev. 19:20; 20:10, 14–15; 21:8); (6) of the Holy Spirit as a purifying agent (Matt. 3:11; Luke 3:16); as tongues of fire (Acts 2:3). On the altar there was a perpetual fire, replenished with wood every morning (Lev. 6:12; 9:24; 2 Chr. 7:1, 3), which consumed the burnt sacrifice and the incense offering.

For similar examples of fire in the Book of Mormon see 1 Ne. 1:6; Hel. 5:23–49; 3 Ne. 17:23–24; 19:13–14; 28:21; 4 Ne. 1:32; Morm. 8:24.

Firmament. The expanse of heaven, meaning, depending on the context, the atmosphere or the sidereal heavens. It is the KJV English translation of a Hebrew word meaning expanse, and is spoken of in Gen. 1; Ps. 19:1; Moses 2; Abr. 4; Abr., fac. 1, fig. 12; see esp. Abr. 4:7–8, 20.

Firstborn. In the patriarchal order, the firstborn son is the heir and inherits the leadership of the family upon the death of the father. This is often spoken of in the scriptures as birthright (Gen. 43:33). Under the law of Moses, the firstborn son was regarded as belonging to God, and special ordinances were provided for his redemption (Ex. 13:12–15; 22:29; Num. 3:45; Luke 2:22–23). The eldest son received a double portion of his father's possessions (Deut. 21:17); and after his father's death, he was responsible for the care of the mother and sisters. The male firstborn of animals also belonged to God. Clean animals were used for sacrifices, while unclean animals might be redeemed or sold or put to death (Ex. 13:2–13; 34:19–20; Lev. 27:11–13, 26–27).

Jesus is the firstborn of the spirit children of our Heavenly Father, the Only Begotten of the Father in the flesh, and the first to rise from the dead in the resurrection, "that in all things he might have the preeminence" (Col. 1:13–18).

The faithful saints were made members of the Church of the Firstborn in eternity, since they receive through Jesus Christ the inheritance of the firstborn (D&C 93:21–22). Joseph, though not the firstborn of Jacob, received the inheritance as though he were the firstborn (1 Chr. 5:1–2), as also did Ephraim (Gen. 48; Jer. 31:9).

In matters of priesthood, in the Aaronic order, certain prerogatives descend upon the firstborn. For example, the right of presidency, to hold the keys of that priesthood, pertains to the firstborn in the family of Aaron (D&C 68:16–21).

Firstfruits. Regarded as belonging to God, and offered by the nation as a whole at the great feasts, and by private individuals at other times (Ex. 22:29; 23:19; 34:26). The prescribed ritual included (1) the waving before the Lord of a sheaf of barley on the morrow of the passover Sabbath (Lev. 23:10–14); (2) the offering of two loaves made with new wheat flour at the Feast of Pentecost (Ex. 34:22; Lev. 23:15, 17); (3) a thanksgiving for the harvest at the Feast of Tabernacles, or of Ingathering (Ex. 23:16; 34:22; Lev. 23:39). See also Num. 15:19, 21; Deut. 26:2–11. Rules with regard to private offerings of firstfruits are found in Ex. 23:16; Lev. 2:12–16; 19:23–25; 22:14; 23:15–17; Num. 15:19–21; Deut. 18:4; 26:2; 2 Chr. 31:5, 11; Neh. 10:35, 37; 12:44.

Fish. These were divided into two classes: (1) "those that have fins and scales," which were allowed as food, and (2) "those which have not fins and scales," which were considered an abomination (Lev. 11:9–12). The Jews of O.T. times do not seem to have paid much attention to the fisheries, for biblical allusions are few, and no fish is mentioned by name at all. The Tyrians brought fish to Jerusalem for sale (Neh. 13:16), and Tyre and Sidon were Phoenician fishing ports. There was a fish market (gate) in Jerusalem (2 Chr. 33:14; Neh. 3:3), the supply for which came chiefly from the Mediterranean coast. The fishing of the Sea of Galilee in the time of Christ was extensive and of commercial importance. It was chiefly done by means of a drag-net or seine, which is a large net, leaded and buoyed, carried out by boats, and then drawn in toward land in a large semicircle (Matt. 13:47–50; Luke 5:5–6). We also read of casting nets (Matt. 4:18; Mark 1:16; John 21:6–8). Fishing with a hook and line is also mentioned (Job 41:1–2; Matt. 17:27); but fly-fishing was unknown, as none of the fish of Palestine will rise to a fly.

The worship of fish was specially forbidden (Deut. 4:18). Idolatry of this sort was widely spread in the East.

Flesh. Permission to eat flesh is found in Gen. 9:3 and D&C 49:18–19; cf. 1 Tim. 4:1–3. The JST adds a caution against wasting flesh or needlessly killing animals (Gen. 9:9–11). There is a prohibition against eating flesh of animals dying a natural death (Lev. 17:15; Deut. 14:21), partly because they would not have been properly bled. The flesh is often spoken of as being a part of our mortal or fallen nature (as in Matt. 26:41; Rom. 7:5, 14–23; 8:3; 1 Cor. 3:1–2; Eph. 2:3); as opposed to the Spirit (Rom. 8:5–9; Gal. 3:3; 5:17–25), and as needing to be overcome (Matt. 4:4; Rom. 8:7, 12–13; Gal. 5:17, 24; 6:8; Col. 2:11; 3:5; 1 Pet. 4:2; 1 Jn. 2:16–17). Since flesh often means mortality, Adam is spoken of as the "first flesh" upon the earth, meaning he was the first mortal on the earth, all things being created in a nonmortal condition, and becoming mortal through the fall of Adam. Jesus is the "Only Begotten of the Father" in the flesh, meaning he is the only one begotten of the Father into mortality (Moses 3:7). See also Fall of Adam.

Frankincense. The fragrant resinous exudation of various species of Boswellia; it was imported into Judaea from Arabia (Isa. 60:6; Jer. 6:20). It was an ingredient in the holy incense for sacrificial purposes (Ex. 30:34) and was highly valued as a perfume (Matt. 2:11).

Frontlets or phylacteries. Strips of parchment on which were written four passages of scriptures (Ex. 13:1–10, 11–16; Deut. 6:5–9; 11:13–21), and which were rolled up and attached to bands of leather worn (as an act of obedience to Ex. 13:9, 16; Deut. 6:8; 11:18) around the forehead or around the arm. The Jews called them tephillin. The Pharisees wore them broader than other people, in order to make them as conspicuous as possible (Matt. 23:5).

Froward. Perverse. Deut. 32:30; 2 Sam. 22:27; Ps. 18:26; Prov. 2:12, 15.

Fullers. Their work was to cleanse garments and whiten them. The soap they employed consisted of salts mixed with oil, and was of two kinds, made with carbonate of soda or with borax. See also Jer. 2:22; Mal. 3:2; Mark 9:3. The Fuller's Field (2 Kgs. 18:17; Isa. 7:3) was close to the walls of Jerusalem, possibly on the east side.

Furniture. Not much furniture is required by orientals, for they usually squat or sit crosslegged on the ground or on a mat or cushion. Even in a palace the furniture of a room will consist only of a few mats or rugs, the divan or row of cushions against the wall, and some low, moveable tables. At the entrance there is usually a fountain at which guests can wash off dust. In a humbler house, instead of the fountain there is a basin and ewer, while instead of rugs and cushions there are mats and shawls. In our Lord's time the Roman practice had come in of lying on couches at meal times, supported on one elbow, with a cushion under the arm to relieve the pressure. When the company was large the couches would be arrayed in the form of a horseshoe. The occupants reclined with their heads near the edge of the table and their feet sloping outwards, so that the feet might be washed without the table being disturbed (Luke 7:38). Except in winter people freely slept in the open air; but raised bedsteads were also found in most houses (Mark 4:21).

Gabriel. Man of God. The name of an angel sent to Daniel (Dan. 8:16; 9:21); to Zacharias (Luke 1:11–19); and to Mary (Luke 1:26–38). He is identified by latter-day revelation as Noah (HC 3:386).

Gad. (Good) fortune. Son of Jacob by Zilpah (Gen. 30:11). For the blessing pronounced on the tribe of Gad, see Gen. 49:19 and Deut. 33:20–21, where the warlike character of the Gadites is emphasized. The children of Gad along with the Reubenites were owners of cattle, and for that reason grazing land was allotted to them in Canaan (Num. 32:1–5). Their district lay east of the Jordan and contained good arable pasture land, with an abundance of water. It was given them on condition they went armed before their brethren (Num. 32; 34:14; Deut. 3:12–20; 29:8; Josh. 1:12–18; 4:12). Their boundaries are described (Josh. 12:1–6; 13:8–12). After the wars they were sent home with a blessing and built an altar, which caused offense (Josh. 22). The Gadites, who were brave and warlike (1 Chr. 5:11–22; 12:8, 14), were sometimes known as Gileadites (Judg. 5:17; 12:4). Their land was invaded, and they were carried captive by Tiglath-pileser (2 Kgs. 10:33; 1 Chr. 5:26).

Gad, the seer. A prophet and faithful friend and adviser of David (1 Sam. 22:5; 2 Sam. 24:11–19; 1 Chr. 21:9–19). He wrote a book of the acts of David (1 Chr. 29:29) and assisted in the arrangement of the music of the house of God (2 Chr. 29:25).

Gadara. Called in the N.T. "the country of the Gadarenes," Gadara was a city of Decapolis, southeast of the Sea of Galilee, on the main road to Damascus. The people were partly Greek and partly Syrian. The district is mentioned in Mark 5:1 and Luke 8:26, 37, in connection with the healing of a demoniac; but the Gospels and the Greek manuscripts do not agree as to its name. Compare the above passages with Matthew 8:28. The miracle was probably worked near Gergesa.

Gaius. (1) Of Macedonia, with Paul at Ephesus (Acts 19:29). (2) Of Derbe (Acts 20:4). (3) Of Corinth (Rom. 16:23; 1 Cor. 1:14). (4) The man to whom the third epistle of John was addressed, probably a wealthy layman living near Ephesus.

Galatia. A district in the center of Asia Minor, inhabited by tribes from Gaul who settled there in the 3rd century B.C. (Galatia was also the Greek name for Gallia, or Gaul.) It was visited by Paul on his second and third journeys (Acts 16:6; 18:23). Some scholars think that Paul and Luke regard the cities of Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe, visited by Paul on his first journey, as part of Galatia, and that it was to these towns that the epistle to the Galatians was addressed. They formed (with the exception of Iconium) part of the Roman province of Galatia, but in popular speech were generally regarded as belonging to Pisidia or Lycaonia.

Galatians, Epistle to. See Pauline Epistles.

Galeed. Heap of witness. The Hebrew name given to a heap made by Jacob and Laban on Mount Gilead as a witness of their covenant (Gen. 31:47–48). The Aramaic name given to it by Laban was Jegar-Sahadutha.

Galilee. The name is not often found in O.T., but see Josh. 20:7; 21:32; 1 Chr. 6:76; 1 Kgs. 9:11; Isa. 9:1. In N.T. times it was the most northerly of the three divisions into which Palestine west of the Jordan was divided, and included the territories of Issachar, Naphtali, Zebulun, and Asher. The district is about 60 miles by 30. It contained some of the best land and the busiest towns of Palestine, and was thickly populated by a hardy, warlike race. It was crossed by important highways leading to Damascus, Egypt, and eastern Palestine. Along these roads caravans would be constantly passing, and such a place as Nazareth would be kept in close touch with what was going on in other parts of the world.

Galilee had an excellent climate, mild near the seacoast, hot in the Jordan valley, and bracing in the highlands. The land was fertile, especially in the plain of Esdraelon, and produced large crops of olives, wheat, barley, and grapes. By the Sea of Galilee the fisheries were a great source of wealth and provided a large export trade.

On the death of Herod the Great after the birth of Jesus, his son Herod Antipas became tetrarch of Galilee, and reigned until A.D. 39, when he was banished by the Emperor Caligula. Galilee then came under the rule of Herod Agrippa I, who died in A.D. 44.

Galilee, Sea of. Also called Sea of Chinneroth, and the Lake of Gennesaret or Tiberias; pear-shaped, 12½ miles long, and 7½ miles across at its greatest breadth. It lies 680 feet below sea-level; the heat is very great, and the cold air rushing down from the hills often produces sudden storms (cf. Luke 8:22–24). The river Jordan flows right through it, from north to south. In the Lord's time there were nine cities on the shore of the lake, including Capernaum, Bethsaida, and Gergesa, each with a population of over 15,000. The lake and its shores were crowded with busy workers. The best fishing ground was at the north end, and a large quantity of pickled fish was exported to all parts of the Roman Empire.

Gall. Something bitter; hence the word is applied to the bile (Job 16:13; 20:25), or to the poison of serpents (20:14). More often it denotes the juice of some bitter plant (Deut. 29:18; 32:32; Matt. 27:34). See also Wormwood.

Galley. A rowing boat with a low deck (Isa. 33:21).

Gallio. Deputy of Achaia, who refused to be a judge of Jewish religious disputes (Acts 18:12–17). A significant feature of this event is that it shows that the Roman officials at that time saw no threat from Christianity and regarded it only as a sect of Judaism. A few years later the disposition of the empire changed its view concerning Christianity.

Gamaliel. A Pharisee, a doctor of the law, held in honor with all the people (Acts 5:34). He was a celebrated Jewish teacher who belonged to the more liberal school. His influence carried great weight in the Sanhedrin (5:35–40). Paul had been one of his pupils (22:3).

Games. These were, of course, enjoyed by Jewish children as by all others (Zech. 8:5; Matt. 11:17). We do not hear much of games for men except in gentile cities. The erection of a gymnasium by Jason was regarded as heathenish (1 Macc. 1:14; 2 Macc. 4:12–14). Among the Greeks and Romans the "public games" formed an important part of the national life, and references to them are frequent in the N.T. It is probable that Paul was present at Ephesus when the annual games were held in honor of Diana, superintended by the Asiarchs, or chief officers of Asia (Acts 19:31); and he may have seen the famous Isthmian games held near Corinth, which consisted of leaping, running, boxing, wrestling, and throwing a spear. The competitors were in training for a long time beforehand. The prizes, consisting of crowns of leaves of ivy or pine, were highly valued (1 Cor. 9:24; Philip. 3:14; 1 Tim. 6:12; 2 Tim. 2:5; 4:7; Heb. 12:1).

Gate. The gate of a city was often a place for public business (Deut. 21:19; Ruth 4:1–11; 2 Sam. 3:27; 15:2; Job 31:21; Ps. 69:12; 127:5; Isa. 29:21; Jer. 38:7; Lam. 5:14; Amos 5:10–15). In heathen towns it was sometimes a place for sacrifice (Acts 14:13).

Gath. Winepress. One of the five cities of the Philistines (Josh. 11:22); the men of the place were punished on account of the Ark (1 Sam. 5:8; 6:17; 7:14). It was the birthplace of Goliath (1 Sam. 17) and a place of refuge for David (1 Sam. 21:10–15; 27). Afterwards it was captured by David (1 Chr. 18:1). See also 2 Sam. 1:20; 15:18; 2 Kgs. 12:17; 2 Chr. 26:6; Amos 6:2; Micah 1:10.

Gaza. One of the five cities of the Philistines (Gen. 10:19; Josh. 10:41; 11:22; 15:47; Judg. 1:18; 6:4). Its gates were carried away by Samson (Judg. 16:1–3, 21; see also 1 Sam. 6:17; 2 Kgs. 18:8). Prophecies concerning Gaza are found in Jer. 47:1, 5; Amos 1:6; Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 9:5. The name was also spelled Azzah.

Gehenna = the valley of Hinnom. South of Jerusalem, the scene of Moloch worship (2 Chr. 28:3; 33:6; Jer. 7:31; 19:2–6); polluted by Josiah (2 Kgs. 23:10); afterwards a place in which the refuse of the city was burned, and for that reason it was symbolical of the place of torment after death (see Matt. 5:29–30; 10:28; 23:15, 33; Mark 9:43, 45; Luke 12:5; James 3:6).

Genealogy. Concerned with tracing the line of descent in any given family. Where certain offices or blessings are restricted to particular families, genealogies become of great importance, e.g., a priest must be able to show his descent from Aaron, the Messiah from David, while every Jew must be able to show his descent from Abraham. In the O.T. the genealogies form an important part of the history, e.g., of the antediluvian patriarchs (Gen. 5; 1 Chr. 1:1–4); of Noah (Gen. 10); of Shem (Gen. 11:10–32; 1 Chr. 1:17–28); of Ham (1 Chr. 1:8–16); of Abraham's children by Keturah (Gen. 25:1–4; 1 Chr. 1:32); of Ishmael (Gen. 25:12–16; 1 Chr. 1:29–31); of Esau (Gen. 36; 1 Chr. 1:35–54); of Jacob (Gen. 46; Ex. 6:14–25; Num. 26; 1 Chr. 2:2); various (1 Chr. 3–9; Ezra 2:62; Neh. 7:64).

The N.T. contains two genealogies of Jesus Christ; that in Matt. 1:1–17 descends from Abraham to Jesus, being intended for Jewish readers; while that in Luke 3:23–38 ascends from Jesus to Adam, and to God, this Gospel being written for the world in general. We notice also that Luke gives 21 names between David and Zerubbabel, and Matthew gives only 15; Luke gives 17 generations between Zerubbabel and Joseph, and Matthew only 9; moreover, nearly all the names are different. The probable explanation is that the descent may be traced through two different lines. Matthew gives a legal descent and includes several adopted children, such adoption carrying with it legal rights, while Luke gives a natural descent through actual parentage.

Members of the Church are privileged to do vicarious ordinance work in the temple for their deceased ancestors, who, they believe, would have received the gospel if they had had the opportunity in this life. In order to do this, the dead must be properly identified. Thus genealogical research is a major activity of the Church (see D&C 127 and 128).

In 1 Tim. 1:4 Timothy is urged to give no heed to "fables and endless genealogies." The reference is probably to exaggerated stories of the heroes and patriarchs of early Hebrew history, such stories being at that time very popular among the Jews. Paul's denunciation of "endless genealogy" was not of the scriptural and spiritually rewarding study of one's ancestry, but was a criticism of the self-deceptive practice of assuming that one can be saved by virtue of one's lineage. See Matt. 3:9 and Luke 3:8, wherein John the Baptist rebuked those who put too much emphasis on ancestry and attempted to use lineage as a substitute for righteousness (cf. 1 Ne. 17:34–35). See also Adoption.

General Epistles. The seven N.T. epistles known as James; 1 and 2 Peter; 1, 2, and 3 John; and Jude. They are so named because they are not directed to any one person or specific branch of the Church. The designation is not entirely accurate for 2 and 3 John.

Genesis. A Greek word meaning origin or beginning. In the book of Genesis we find an account of many beginnings, such as the creation of the earth, the placing of animals and man thereon, the introduction of sin, the revelation of the gospel to Adam, the beginning of tribes and races, the origin of various languages at Babel, and the beginning of the Abrahamic family leading to the establishment of the house of Israel. Joseph's role as a preserver of Israel is also given emphasis. The structure of the book of Genesis rests on several genealogies. Each new section begins "These are the generations," and there follows a genealogical list of certain portions of family history. Some major divisions of Genesis are:

1. Adam (chs. 1—3). The creation and early history of the world; all mankind as yet one family.

2. Noah (chs. 4—9). The line of Cain branching off; while the history follows the fortunes of Seth, whose descendants are traced in genealogical succession as far as Noah, whose history is followed up to his death.

3. Abraham. (a) The peopling of the whole earth by the descendants of Noah's sons and the diffusion of tongues at the tower of Babel (11:1–9). The history of two of these is then dropped and (b) the line of Shem only pursued (11:10–32) as far as Terah and Abram, where the genealogical table breaks off; (c) Abraham is now the chief figure (12:1—25:18). As Terah had two other sons, Nahor and Haran (11:27), some notices respecting their families are added, including the history of Lot, the father of Moab and Ammon (19:37–38), nations afterwards closely connected with Israel. Nahor remained in Mesopotamia, but his family is briefly enumerated (22:20–24), chiefly for Rebekah's sake, afterwards Isaac's wife. Of Abraham's own children there branches off first the line of Ishmael and next the children of Keturah (21:9; 25:1–6, 12–18).

4. Isaac. The account of his life (21:1—35:29) depicts him as a peacemaker and declares that from among the several sons of Abraham, the covenant was to be upon Isaac (Gen. 21:12; Rom. 9:7).

5. Jacob. After Isaac's death we have (a) the genealogy of Esau (ch. 36), who then drops out of the narrative, and (b) the history of the patriarchs till the death of Joseph (chs. 37—50).

God's relation to Israel holds the first place throughout in the writer's mind. The introductory chapters are a history of the world as a preparation for the history of the chosen seed. The object of the book is to teach religious history.

The book of Genesis is the true and original birthplace of all theology. It contains those ideas of God and man, of righteousness and judgment, of responsibility and moral government, of failure and hope, which are presupposed through the rest of the O.T. and which prepare the way for the mission of Christ.

In latter-day revelation we find many sources of information that clarify and substantiate the record of Genesis. The Joseph Smith Translation especially, a portion of which is presented in the book of Moses, offers the best available account of the early chapters. Of exceptional worth is Moses 1, giving an account of some visions and experiences of Moses previous to and in preparation for writing Genesis. This chapter is an introduction to Genesis, just as Genesis is an introduction to the remainder of the Bible. Other chapters of Moses specify certain events that took place previous to the creation of the earth, and form a proper setting thereunto, such as the selection of the Savior in the grand council and the rebellion of Lucifer. The book of Moses also supplies many other valuable concepts, including the revelation of the gospel of Jesus Christ to Adam, Enoch, and all the early patriarchs.

Other fruitful sources of latter-day revelation that clarify Genesis are the Book of Mormon, especially 1 Ne. 5 and Ether 1; Doctrine and Covenants, secs. 29, 84, 107; and the book of Abraham. Among other things, latter-day revelation certifies to Moses as the original author of Genesis.

Gennesaret(h), land of. The fertile plain on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee, toward the northern end, 1 mile broad and 2½ miles long, 500 feet below the level of the Mediterranean. In our Lord's day it was considered the best part of Galilee, but it became desolate and uncultivated until the rise of modern Israel (Matt. 14:34; Mark 6:53). The "lake of Gennesaret" = the Sea of Galilee. See Galilee, Sea of.

Gentile. The word gentiles means the nations, and eventually came to be used to mean all those not of the house of Israel. It is first used in Genesis with reference to the descendants of Japheth (Gen. 10:2–5). As used throughout the scriptures it has a dual meaning, sometimes to designate peoples of non-Israelite lineage, and other times to designate nations that are without the gospel, even though there may be some Israelite blood therein. This latter usage is especially characteristic of the word as used in the Book of Mormon.

The duties of Israelites toward gentiles were defined in the law (Ex. 23:32; 34:12–16; Deut. 7:1–3; 20:10–18; 23:3–8; Ezra 9:2–15; 10:1–18; Neh. 13:1–3, 23–31). These regulations served to emphasize the distinction between Israel and gentile. However, there were numerous provisions showing that Israel was to deal justly and honestly with non-Israelites and to be compassionate toward them (Ex. 22:21; 23:9; Lev. 19:10, 33–34; 24:22).

The pious Jews of New Testament times held themselves aloof from contact with the gentiles. When a gentile was converted to Judaism, he was called a proselyte. Even in the Church there was a cultural and doctrinal struggle among many Jewish Christians before they would permit one of gentile lineage to enjoy full fellowship. The first gentiles to come into the New Testament Church were those who had already become proselytes to Judaism.

Cornelius (Acts 10–11) was the first gentile of whom we have record who came into the Christian Church without first being a proselyte to Judaism. He was introduced to the gospel of Jesus Christ through a series of divine manifestations both to him and to Peter.

Paul was called the "apostle of the Gentiles" (Rom. 11:13), and it was primarily through his ministry that the gospel was established among those of gentile lineage throughout Europe and Asia Minor, although the way was opened by Peter's baptism of Cornelius. See also Cornelius; Proselyte.

Gerar. A place in southwestern Palestine, near Gaza (Gen. 10:19). Abraham lived there for a time (Gen. 20) as did Isaac (Gen. 26). See also 2 Chr. 14:13–14.

Gergesenes = men of Gergesa (Matt. 8:28). There is a difference of opinion as to the scene of the healing of the demoniac; see Gadara. Gadara and Gerasa were well-known places, and these names might easily be substituted for the less well-known Gergesa, where the miracle was almost certainly worked, near the middle of the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee; the modern name is Khersa.

Gerizim and Ebal. Two mountains in the center of Palestine, Ebal being due north of Gerizim. Between them is a valley in which stood the ancient town of Shechem, close to the site of the modern town of Nablus. Gerizim is about 800 feet above the plain (2850 feet above sea-level), while Ebal is 100 feet higher; both have precipitous faces, the two summits being about one-third mile apart. In Deut. 11:29; 27:12, instructions are given that a blessing should be "set" on Mount Gerizim, and the curse on Mount Ebal; for the fulfillment, see Josh. 8:33. It was from Gerizim that Jotham's parable was delivered (Judg. 9:7). After the return from the Babylonian captivity Gerizim again became a place of importance, as the center of the Samaritan worship. A certain Manasseh, son or grandson of Joiada, a priest in Jerusalem (Neh. 13:28), had married the daughter of Sanballat the Horonite. Refusing to put her away, he was expelled from the priesthood, and took refuge with the Samaritans, among whom, as a member of the high priestly family, he set up upon Mount Gerizim a rival temple and priesthood (John 4:20).

Gethsemane. The garden, across the brook Kedron, on the slope of the Mount of Olives, to which the Lord went on leaving the upper room on the night of his betrayal (Matt. 26:36; Mark 14:32; cf. Luke 22:39; John 18:1). An old tradition identifies it with a garden still existing some 250 yards from the east wall of the city.

Giants. Unusually large, tall persons, apparently having great physical strength. They are mentioned both before the flood (Gen. 6:4; Moses 8:18) and after (Num. 13:33; Deut. 2:10–11, 20; 3:11–13; 9:2; Josh. 15:8; 18:16). Raphah of Gath was said to be the father of several giants of whom Goliath was one (1 Sam. 17:4–7; 2 Sam. 21:16–22; 1 Chr. 20:6). A 12-fingered, 12-toed giant is also mentioned as one of the sons. The giants in Palestine were also known as Anakims, Emims, and Zamzummims.

Gibeon, Gibeonites. Formerly a city of the Hivites, on one of the hills of Benjamin, about 5 miles north of Jerusalem, frequently mentioned in O.T. history (Josh. 9; 10; 2 Sam. 2:12–17; 20:5–10; 21:1–14; 1 Kgs. 3:4–15; 1 Chr. 16:39; 2 Chr. 1:3, 13).

Gideon. Hewer down (of men), i.e., warrior. The hero who delivered Israel from oppression by the Midianites (Judg. 6:11—8:35). He lived at Ophrah, a town of Manasseh. His first step was to destroy the altar of Baal and the "grove" his father had made; he received in consequence the name Jerubbaal (Judg. 6:31–32). With a small army he defeated the Midianites by means of a stratagem. The tribes then offered him the kingship, which he declined. With the gold captured from the Midianites he made some sort of idol, called an Ephod, and so, perhaps unintentionally, led the people into idolatry. See also Isa. 9:4; 10:25; Heb. 11:32.

Gier eagle. A bird forbidden as food (Lev. 11:18; Deut. 14:17). Geire was an old English word for vulture.

Gihon. (1) A river of Eden (Gen. 2:13). (2) A place containing a spring near Jerusalem, where Solomon was anointed king (1 Kgs. 1:33, 38, 45; 2 Chr. 32:30; 33:14). The valley in which Gihon was situated was probably the bed of the Kedron, or valley of Jehoshaphat. The waters of the spring flowed through Hezekiah's tunnel to the pool of Siloam, within the city (2 Kgs. 20:20). See Hezekiah's tunnel.

Gilboa. Bubbling fountain. The mountain ridge that forms the southeastern boundary of the plain of Esdraelon, in southern Galilee. It gets its name from the large number of perennial springs found there. Here Saul and his sons were slain (1 Sam. 28:4; 31:1, 8; 2 Sam. 1:6, 21).

Gilead. A highland district east of the Jordan, south of Bashan, rising in parts to an elevation of 4,000 feet above the sea. It is well wooded and crossed by deep glens that descend toward Jordan. It was assigned half to the tribe of Gad and half to Manasseh.

Gilgal. A wheel or circle of stones. (1) The place near Jericho at which the Israelite camp was made on the first night after crossing the Jordan (Josh. 4:19; 5:10; 10). Here the 12 stones from the Jordan were set up as a monument to the parting of the Jordan River by the power of God. It was a sacred city in the time of Saul (1 Sam. 10:8; 11:14–15; 13:4, 15; 15:12–33); but later it was the scene of idolatrous worship (Hosea 4:15; 9:15; 12:11; Amos 4:4; 5:5). (2) A place near Bethel, visited by Elijah and Elisha (Deut. 11:30; 2 Kgs. 2:1). (3) Josh. 12:23.

Girgashites. One of the seven nations driven out by the Israelites. Little is known beyond their name (Gen. 10:16; Josh. 3:10). Nehemiah (9:7–8) cites the fact that they were driven out of Canaan as a fulfillment of the Lord's promise to Abraham.

Glass. Made and used by the Egyptians, Hebrews, and other early races. In the Revelation of John it is an emblem of brightness (Rev. 4:6; 15:2; 21:18). The "glass" mentioned in the N.T. as an instrument for reflection (1 Cor. 13:12; 2 Cor. 3:18; James 1:23) was a mirror made of polished metal.

Gleanings. To be left for the poor (Lev. 19:9–10; 23:22; Deut. 24:19–22). See also Ruth 2:2–23.

Glory of the Lord, or of Jehovah. An expression that occurs frequently in the O.T. It sometimes denotes the fulness of the majesty of God, revealed in the world and made known to men (Num. 14:21–22; Isa. 6:3; 66:19); in other places it denotes some outward and visible manifestation of the Divine presence (Ex. 33:17–23; Ezek. 1:28; 9:3; 10:4, 18–19; 11:23; 43:2–5; cf. Luke 2:9; 9:32; John 1:14).

Goads. A pole or stick with a sharp metal point, used to prick oxen while plowing. Reference is made to it in Acts 9:5. Judg. 3:31 records that Shamgar slew 600 men with his ox goads. After entering Canaan, the Israelites employed the Philistine metal smiths to sharpen their goads and other tools (1 Sam. 13:19–21). Words of counsel from the wise are goads to right conduct in Eccl. 12:11.

Goats. Used for sacrifice and also kept for their milk. The hair was used to make the curtains of the tabernacle; the skin was made into a vessel for carrying water; and the flesh was eaten. Wild goats are also mentioned in the O.T. They are still found in the ravines of Moab and in the wilderness of Judaea near the Dead Sea.

God. The supreme Governor of the universe and the Father of mankind. We learn from the revelations that have been given that there are three separate persons in the Godhead: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. From latter-day revelation we learn that the Father and the Son have tangible bodies of flesh and bone, and that the Holy Ghost is a personage of spirit without flesh and bone (D&C 130:22–23).

When one speaks of God, it is generally the Father who is referred to; that is, Elohim. All mankind are his children. The personage known as Jehovah in Old Testament times, and who is usually identified in the Old Testament as LORD (in capital letters), is the Son, known as Jesus Christ, and who is also a God. Jesus works under the direction of the Father and is in complete harmony with him. All mankind are his brethren and sisters, he being the eldest of the spirit children of Elohim. Many of the things that the scripture says were done by God were actually done by the LORD (Jesus). Thus the scripture says that "God created the heaven and the earth" (Gen. 1:1), but we know that it was actually the LORD (Jesus) who was the creator (John 1:3, 10), or as Paul said, God created all things by Christ Jesus (Eph. 3:9). The Holy Ghost is also a God and is variously called the Holy Spirit, the Spirit, the Spirit of God, etc.

Although God created all things and is the ruler of the universe, being omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent (through his Spirit), mankind has a special relationship to him that differentiates man from all other created things: man is literally God's offspring, made in his image, whereas all other things are but the work of his hands (cf. Acts 17:28–29).

The God of the scriptures is a holy being. Man is commanded to be holy because God is holy (Lev. 11:44–45; 19:2). God can be known only by revelation. He must be revealed, or remain forever unknown (cf. Mosiah 4:9). God first revealed himself to Adam (Moses 5; 6) and has repeatedly made himself known by revelation to chosen patriarchs and prophets since that time. The present translation of John 1:18 and 1 Jn. 4:12 is misleading, for these say that no man has ever seen God. However, the scriptures state that there have been many who have seen him. The JST corrects these items to show that no sinful man has ever seen God, and also that Jesus Christ is the only Way to God. God the Father and his Son have been manifested by voice, sight, or otherwise at various times, as at the baptism of Jesus (Matt. 3:16–17); the Transfiguration (Matt. 17:1–8); to Stephen (Acts 7:55–56); and to the Nephites (3 Ne. 11:7). The Father and the Son personally visited Joseph Smith in the Sacred Grove, in the spring of 1820, near Manchester, New York, in the opening of the dispensation of the fulness of times (JS-H 1:11–20).

Latter-day revelation confirms the biblical account of God as the literal father of the human family; as a being who is concerned for the welfare of mankind, and a Personage who hears and answers prayers.

For other references to God, see Heb. 1:1–3; Jacob 4:5; D&C 20:17. See also Holy Ghost; Jehovah.

Gog. (1) A Reubenite (1 Chr. 5:4). (2) King of Magog, whose invasion of Israel was prophesied by Ezekiel (Ezek. 38; 39). The prophecy points to a time when the heathen nations of the north would set themselves against the people of God and would be defeated, and led to recognize Jehovah as King. All this appears to be at the second coming of the Lord. Another battle, called the battle of Gog and Magog, will occur at the end of the 1,000 years. This is described by John in Rev. 20:7–9; see also D&C 88:111–116.

Golan. A city and district of Bashan, east of the Jordan (Deut. 4:43; Josh. 20:8; 21:27; 1 Chr. 6:71). In N.T. times the district was called Gaulanitis.

Gold. Found in the land of Havilah (Gen. 2:11); used in the tabernacle (Ex. 24–40), in the temple (1 Kgs. 6–9), and in Solomon's house (1 Kgs. 10:16–21). Many instances are given in the O.T. of its use for purposes of ornament, Arabia, Sheba, and Ophir being the countries from which it was brought (1 Kgs. 9:28; 10:2). It is figuratively mentioned in 2 Tim. 2:20; Rev. 3:18; 14:14; 21:15, 18. It formed part of the offering made by the "wise men" to the infant Savior (Matt. 2:11).

Golgotha. A skull. The Aramaic name of the place where Christ was crucified (Matt. 27:33; Mark 15:22; John 19:17). It is uncertain why it received this name—possibly because it was a round bare spot, bearing some likeness to a bald head. It was outside the gate (Matt. 28:11; Heb. 13:12), but close to the city (John 19:20) and to some highway (Mark 15:29). JST Matt. 27:33 defines Golgotha as "a place of burial."

Goliath of Gath. The Philistine giant killed by David (1 Sam. 17). In 2 Sam. 21:19 the reference is probably to a different man of the same name; or some error may have crept into the text. See Giants.

Gomorrah. The early history of Gomorrah is found in Gen. 10:19; 13:10; 14:2–11; 18:20; its destruction is noted in Gen. 19. See also Deut. 29:23; Isa. 13:19; Jer. 50:40; Amos 4:11; Matt. 10:15; Rom. 9:29; 2 Pet. 2:6; Jude 1:7. The fate of the city was regarded as a warning against sensual wickedness. The five "cities of the plain," of which Gomorrah was one, probably stood at the southern end of the Dead Sea.

Gopher wood. The wood of a resin-yielding conifer, probably the cypress, used in making the ark (Gen. 6:14).

Goshen. (1) The part of Egypt in which the Israelites dwelt. It contained pasture land (Gen. 46:33–34) and lay somewhere between Palestine and the capital of Egypt (46:28–29), probably in the eastern part of the delta of the Nile. (2) A district in southern Palestine, position uncertain (Josh. 10:41; 11:16). (3) A town of Judah (Josh. 15:51).

Gospels. The word gospel means good news. The good news is that Jesus Christ has made a perfect atonement for mankind that will redeem all mankind from the grave and reward each individual according to his/her works. This atonement was begun by his appointment in the premortal world but was worked out by Jesus during his mortal sojourn. Therefore, the records of his mortal life and the events pertaining to his ministry are called the Gospels; the four that are contained in our Bible are presented under the names of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.

The four Gospels are not so much biographies as they are testimonies. They do not reveal a day-by-day story of the life of Jesus; rather, they tell who Jesus was, what he said, what he did, and why it was important. The records of Matthew, Mark, and Luke present a somewhat similar collection of materials and have considerable phraseology in common, as well as similar main points, and thus are sometimes labeled as the "Synoptic Gospels" (meaning "see-alike"). Even so, each is unique and has much detail that is not shared by the others. John's record is quite different from the other three in vocabulary, phraseology, and presentation of events.

It appears from the internal evidence of each record that Matthew was written to persuade the Jews that Jesus is the promised Messiah. To do so, he cites several O.T. prophecies and speaks repeatedly of Jesus as the Son of David, thus emphasizing his royal lineage. Mark appeals to a gentile audience and is fast moving, emphasizing the doings more than the sayings of the Lord. He occasionally gives geographical and cultural explanations—necessary procedure for non-Jewish readers (see Mark 2:26; 5:41; 7:2–13, 34). Luke offers his readers a polished literary account of the ministry of Jesus, presenting Jesus as the universal Savior of both Jews and gentiles. He dwells extensively on Jesus' teachings and his doings. Luke is favorable toward the gentiles and also gives more stories involving women than do the other records. John's account does not contain much of the fundamental information that the other records contain, and it is evident that he was writing to members of the Church who already had basic information about the Lord. His primary purpose was to emphasize the divine nature of Jesus as the Only Begotten Son of God in the flesh.

Though there are many similarities in each of the Gospels, there are also many items that are found in one record only, making a study of all the records necessary. Some of the more significant items that appear in but one record are the following: Matthew only: visit of the wise men; the star in the east (2:1–12). Mark only: Jesus, a carpenter (6:3); a young man wearing a sheet (14:52). Luke only: visits of Gabriel to Zacharias and Mary (Luke 1); visit of the shepherds (Luke 2:8–18); Jesus at the temple at age 12 (Luke 2:41–52); the seventy (10:1–24); Jesus sweating blood (22:44); Jesus' discussion with the thief on the cross (23:39–43); Jesus eating fish and honey after his resurrection (24:42–43). John only: turning water into wine (2:1–11); visit of Nicodemus (3:1–10); woman at the well (4:1–42); discourse on bread of life (6:27–71); raising of Lazarus from the dead (11:1–56); washing of feet (13:1–16); discourse about the Holy Ghost (14, 15, 16); promise of John's tarrying on the earth (21:20–24). John's record is notable for what it does not contain. For example, it has no mention of Jesus' 40-day experience in the wilderness; of the Mount of Transfiguration; of true parables; and of casting out evil spirits.

In summation, Mark has the least amount of unique material, being only about 7 percent exclusive; John has the greatest amount, being about 92 percent exclusive. With the knowledge now available, it is not possible to create a perfect harmony of the four Gospels, because the Gospel authors themselves do not always agree on chronological matters. A possible harmony of the four Gospels that is useful for study is given in the following tables, arranged, so far as information permits, in chronological order:

HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS

I. Preparation for the Messianic Ministry

EVENT LOCATION

Prologue

Matt. 1:1 Mark 1:1 Luke 1:1–4 John 1:1–5

John cf. 1:14

The genealogies

Matt. 1:2–17 Luke 3:23–38

Annunciation to Zacharias Jerusalem: temple

Luke 1:5–25 D&C 27:7–8

Elisabeth's seclusion Judaea: Bethlehem

Luke 1:24–25

Annunciation to Mary Nazareth

Luke 1:26–38 Alma 7:10–13

Annunciation to Joseph Nazareth

Matt. 1:18–24

Mary visits Elisabeth Judaea: Bethlehem

Luke 1:39–56

Birth of John the Baptist Judaea: near Bethlehem

Luke 1:57–58

Naming of John Judaea: near Bethlehem

Luke 1:59–66 D&C 27:7

D&C 84:27

Zacharias's prophetic psalm Judaea: near Bethlehem

Luke 1:67–80 D&C 84:28

Joseph and Mary go to be taxed From Nazareth to Bethlehem

Luke 2:1–5

Birth of Jesus Bethlehem

Luke 2:6–7 1 Ne. 11:18–20

Mosiah 3:5–8

Alma 7:10

Hel. 14:5–12

3 Ne. 1:4–22

Annunciation to the shepherds Bethlehem

Luke 2:8–20

Naming of Jesus Bethlehem

Matt. 1:25 Luke 2:21 2 Ne. 25:19

Mosiah 3:8

Hel. 14:12

Moses 6:52

Presentation in the temple Jerusalem

Luke 2:22–39

Visit of the wise men Bethlehem

Matt. 2:1–12

Flight to Egypt

Matt. 2:13–15

Slaughter of the infants Bethlehem

Matt. 2:16–18

From Egypt to Nazareth

Matt. 2:19–23 Luke 2:39–40

Visit to the temple (Passover) Jerusalem

Luke 2:41–50

The return to Nazareth

Luke 2:51–52

II. The Ministry of an Elias: John the Baptist

EVENT LOCATION

John's prophetic ministry Near the Jordan

Matt. 3:1–6 Mark 1:1–8 Luke 3:1–18 John 1:1–37 1 Ne. 10:7–10

D&C 35:4

D&C 84:27–28

Isaiah's prophecy of John

Matt. 3:3 Mark 1:2–3 Luke 3:4–6 John 1:23

The beginning of John's ministry Wilderness of Judaea

Matt. 3:1, 5–6 Mark 1:4 Luke 3:1–3 John 1:6–14

Warning to Pharisees and Sadducees Bethabara

Matt. 3:7–9 Luke 3:7–8 John 1:19–28

Call to repentance Bethabara

Matt. 3:8–12 Mark 1:4–8 Luke 3:8–18

Baptism of Jesus Bethabara

Matt. 3:13–17 Mark 1:9–11 Luke 3:21–22 John 1:32–34 1 Ne. 10:7–10

2 Ne. 31:4–21

Temptation of Jesus Wilderness of Judaea.

Matt. 4:1–11 Mark 1:12–13 Luke 4:1–13 JST Matt. 4:1–10

John the Baptist's testimony Bethabara

John 1:15–36 D&C 93:6–18, 26

John's disciples follow Jesus Bethabara

John 1:35–51

Jesus departs for Galilee

John 1:43

III. The Ministry of the Messiah. A. An Early Galilean Ministry

EVENT LOCATION

Marriage at Cana Cana

John 2:1–11

Visit to Capernaum Capernaum

John 2:12

III. The Ministry of the Messiah. B. The Early Judaean Ministry

EVENT LOCATION

First Passover Jerusalem

John 2:13, 23–25

First cleansing of temple Solomon's Porch, Jerusalem

John 2:14–17

Sign of Jonah Jerusalem

John 2:18–22

Nicodemus Jerusalem

John 3:1–10

Messianic witness to Nicodemus Jerusalem

John 3:11–21

Jesus' early ministry in Judaea Judaea

John 3:22

John 4:1

John's ministry and testimony Aenon near Salim

John 3:23–36

Herod Antipas reproved by John Judaea (?)

Matt. 14:3–5 Mark 6:17–20 Luke 3:19–20

John imprisoned and visited by angels Machaerus (Perea)

Matt. 4:12 Mark 1:14 Luke 3:19–20 JST Matt. 4:11

III. The Ministry of the Messiah. C. A Second Galilean Ministry

EVENT LOCATION

Jesus leaves Judaea for Galilee

Matt. 4:12 Mark 1:14 Luke 4:14 John 4:1–3

Woman at the well Samaria (Sychar)

John 4:4–42

Jesus returns to Galilee and preaches Galilee

Matt. 4:12, 17 Mark 1:14–15 Luke 4:14–15 John 4:43–45

Healing of the nobleman's son Cana

John 4:46–54

Jesus rejected at Nazareth Nazareth

Matt. 4:13–16 Luke 4:16–30

Removal to Capernaum Capernaum

Matt. 4:13 Luke 4:31–32

Casting out an unclean spirit Capernaum

Mark 1:21–28 Luke 4:33–37

Fishermen called to be fishers of men Sea of Galilee

Matt. 4:18–22 Mark 1:16–20

Proclamation of the gospel in Galilee: the first tour Galilee

Matt. 4:23–25 Mark 1:35–39 Luke 4:37, 42–44

Discourse from a boat Sea of Galilee

Luke 5:1–3

Peter called to catch men; his heart touched Galilee

Luke 5:4–11

Healing of the leper Galilee

Matt. 8:1–4 Mark 1:40–45 Luke 5:12–15

Twelve called and ordained Galilee

Matt. 10:1–4 Mark 3:13–19 Luke 6:12–16 1 Ne. 13:24–26, 39–41

D&C 95:4

Charge to the Twelve Galilee

Matt. 10:5–42 Mark 6:7–13 Luke 9:1–2 D&C 18

Luke 12:2–9, 11–12, 49–53

Luke 14:25–28

The Sermon on the Mount Galilee

Matt. 5 Luke 6:17–49

Matt. 6

Matt. 7

The poor in spirit Galilee

Matt. 5:3 Luke 6:20 3 Ne. 12:3

Those who mourn Galilee

Matt. 5:4 3 Ne. 12:4

The meek Galilee

Matt. 5:5 3 Ne. 12:5

Hunger and thirst after righteousness Galilee

Matt. 5:6 3 Ne. 12:6

The merciful Galilee

Matt. 5:7 3 Ne. 12:7

The pure in heart Galilee

Matt. 5:8 3 Ne. 12:8

The peacemakers Galilee

Matt. 5:9 3 Ne. 12:9

Persecuted for righteousness Galilee

Matt. 5:10 Luke 6:22–23 3 Ne. 12:10

Persecuted by false accusers Galilee

Matt. 5:11–12 3 Ne. 12:11–12

The salt of the earth Galilee

Matt. 5:13 Luke 14:34–35 3 Ne. 12:13

D&C 101:39–40

"Ye are the light of the world" Galilee

Matt. 5:14–15 Luke 8:16

Luke 11:33 3 Ne. 12:14–15

Let your light shine Galilee

Matt. 5:16 3 Ne. 12:16

The law fulfilled Galilee

Matt 5:17–20 Luke 16:17 3 Ne. 12:17–20, 46–47

Anger: "Thou shalt not kill" Galilee

Matt. 5:21–26 Luke 12:58–59 3 Ne. 12:21–26

Adultery, lust Galilee

Matt. 5:27–30 3 Ne. 12:27–30

JST Matt. 6:25–26

Divorce Galilee

Matt. 5:31–32 Luke 16:18 3 Ne. 12:31–32

Swearing an oath: honesty Galilee

Matt. 5:33–37 3 Ne. 12:33–37

Evil force or generous service Galilee

Matt. 5:38–42 3 Ne. 12:38–42

Love enemies Galilee

Matt. 5:43–47 Luke 6:27–36 3 Ne. 12:43–45

Perfect as your Father Galilee

Matt. 5:48 3 Ne. 12:48

Alms: Notoriety or generosity Galilee

Matt. 6:1–4 3 Ne. 13:1–4

Prayer: Hypocrisy or reverence Galilee

Matt. 6:5–15 Luke 11:2–4 3 Ne. 13:5–15

Fasting: Hypocrisy or simplicity Galilee

Matt. 6:16–18 3 Ne. 13:16–18

Treasure on earth or in heaven Galilee

Matt. 6:19–34 Luke 11:34–36 3 Ne. 13:19–34

Luke 12:22–34

Luke 16:9–13

Judgment: Hypocritical or helpful Galilee

Matt. 7:1–5 Luke 6:37–38, 41–42 3 Ne. 14:1–5

Holy things are like pearls Galilee

Matt. 7:6 3 Ne. 14:6

JST Matt. 7:10–11

Prayer: Ask, seek, knock Galilee

Matt. 7:7–12 Luke 11:9–13 3 Ne. 14:7–12

The way is strait and narrow Galilee

Matt. 7:13–14 Luke 13:23–24 3 Ne. 14:13–14

False prophets known by their fruits Galilee

Matt. 7:15–20 Luke 6:43–44 3 Ne. 14:15–20

Do the will of the Father Galilee

Matt. 7:21–23 Luke 6:46 3 Ne. 14:21–23

(Luke 13:25–30)

A house built on a rock or on sand Galilee

Matt. 7:24–27 Luke 6:47–49 3 Ne. 14:24–27

D&C 11:16–25

Taught having authority, not as Scribes Galilee

Matt. 7:28–29

Healing of the centurion's servant Capernaum

Matt. 8:5–13 Luke 7:1–10

Widow's son restored Nain

Luke 7:11–17

The mother of Peter's wife is healed Capernaum

Matt. 8:14–15 Mark 1:29–31 Luke 4:38–39

Healing in the evening Capernaum

Matt. 8:16–17 Mark 1:32–34 Luke 4:40–41 2 Ne. 9:21

Alma 7:11

D&C 18:11

D&C 19:15–20

Foxes have holes Capernaum

Matt. 8:18–22 Luke 9:57–62

Peace be still Sea of Galilee

Matt. 8:23–27 Mark 4:35–41 Luke 8:22–25

Legion enter into swine Geresa or Gadara

Matt. 8:28–34 Mark 5:1–20 Luke 8:26–39

Paralytic healed Capernaum

Matt. 9:1–8 Mark 2:1–12 Luke 5:17–26

A feast at house of Matthew Capernaum

Matt. 9:9–13 Mark 2:13–17 Luke 5:27–32

John's disciples ask about fasting: Galilee

Old and new (Pharisees ask about baptism)

Matt. 9:14–17 Mark 2:18–22 Luke 5:33–39 JST Matt. 9:18–23

Jairus's daughter raised Capernaum

Matt. 9:18–19, 23–26 Mark 5:21–24, 35–43 Luke 8:41–42, 49–56

Virtue (power) is gone out of me Capernaum

Matt. 9:20–22 Mark 5:25–34 Luke 8:43–48

Two blind men healed Capernaum

Matt. 9:27–31

Heals demoniac: Prince of devils Capernaum

Matt. 9:32–34 Luke 11:14–15

Teaching tour in cities of apostles Capernaum, Cana, Bethesda, etc.

Matt. 11:1 Luke 10:1

John sends disciples to Jesus Galilee

Matt. 11:2–6 Luke 7:18–23

John: No greater prophet Galilee

Matt. 11:7–19 Luke 7:24–35

Luke 16:16

Second Passover (brief trip to Judaea) Jerusalem

John 5:1

Healing on the Sabbath Jerusalem

John 5:2–16

Discourse: Witness of the Father Jerusalem

John 5:17–47

Proclamation of the gospel in Galilee: Second preaching tour Galilee

Matt. 9:35–38 Mark 6:6

Third preaching tour Galilee

Luke 8:1–3

Sabbath controversies Galilee

Matt. 12:1–21 Mark 2:23—3:12 Luke 6:1–11

Beelzebub, blasphemy Galilee

Matt. 12:22–37 Mark 3:22–30 Luke 6:45

Luke 11:14–26

Luke 12:10

Pharisees asked for a sign Galilee

Matt. 12:38 Luke 11:16 Alma 30:43–51

D&C 63:7–12

Sign of Jonah Galilee

Matt. 12:39–45 Luke 11:29–32

Jesus' mother and brethren Galilee

Matt. 12:46–50 Mark 3:31–35 Luke 8:19–21

Parables: Future of the kingdom Galilee

Matt. 13:1–53 Mark 4:1–34 Luke 8:4–18 HC 2:264–72

Discourse from a boat Sea of Galilee

Matt. 13:2 Mark 4:1

Sower Sea of Galilee

Matt. 13:3–9, 18–23 Mark 4:3–9, 14–20 Luke 8:4–8, 11–15

Why parables Sea of Galilee

Matt. 13:10–17, 34–43 Mark 4:10–13 Luke 8:9–10 JST Matt. 21:34

Luke 10:23–24

Candle Sea of Galilee

Mark 4:21–25 Luke 8:16–18

Tares Sea of Galilee

Matt. 13:24–30, 36–43 Mark cf. 4:26–29 D&C 86:1–7

D&C 101:65–66

Mustard seed Sea of Galilee

Matt. 13:31–32 Mark 4:30–32 Luke 13:18–19

Leaven Sea of Galilee

Matt. 13:33 Luke 13:20–21

Disciples Sea of Galilee

Mark 4:33–34

Treasure in field Sea of Galilee

Matt. 13:44

Pearl of great price Sea of Galilee

Matt. 13:45–46

Net Sea of Galilee

Matt. 13:47–50

Householder Sea of Galilee

Matt. 13:51–52

Second rejection at Nazareth Nazareth

Matt. 13:53–58 Mark 6:1–6

Herod's fear of Jesus Galilee (?)

Matt. 14:1–2 Mark 6:14–16 Luke 9:7–9

The Baptist's earlier death Machaerus (Perea)

Matt. 14:3–12 Mark 6:17–29

Passover: Return of the Twelve Bethsaida

Matt. 14:13–15 Mark 6:30–32 Luke 9:10 John 6:1–4

Feeding the five thousand Near Bethsaida

Matt. 14:16–21 Mark 6:33–44 Luke 9:11–17 John 6:5–14

Jesus walks on the water Sea of Galilee

Matt. 14:22–33 Mark 6:45–52 John 6:15–21

Discourse: Bread of life Synagogue at Capernaum

John 6:22–71

Jesus teaches in Galilee Galilee

John 7:1

Healings Gennesaret

Matt. 14:34–36 Mark 6:53–56

Traditions can defile Galilee

Matt. 15:1–20 Mark 7:1–23

III. The Ministry of the Messiah. D. North Galilean Ministry

EVENT LOCATION

Canaanite daughter healed Tyre, Sidon

Matt. 15:21–28 Mark 7:24–30

Heals lame, blind, and dumb Galilee

Matt. 15:29–31 Mark 7:31–37

Four thousand fed Mountain near Sea of Galilee

Matt. 15:32–38 Mark 8:1–9

Pharisees and Sadducees ask a sign Magdala

Matt. 15:39—16:4 Mark 8:10–13 Luke 12:54–57

Leaven of Pharisees and Sadducees East side of Galilee

Matt. 16:5–12 Mark 8:14–21 Luke cf. 12:1

Blind man healed by stages Bethsaida

Mark 8:22–26

Testimony of Peter Caesarea Philippi

Matt. 16:13–20 Mark 8:27–30 Luke 9:18–22

Sealing keys of the kingdom promised Caesarea Philippi

Matt. 16:19

Prophecy of death and resurrection Caesarea Philippi

Matt. 16:21 Mark 8:31 Luke 9:21–22

Peter rebuked Caesarea Philippi

Matt. 16:22–23 Mark 8:32–33

Take up a cross Caesarea Philippi

Matt. 16:24–27 Mark 8:34–38 Luke 9:23–26

Some not to taste death Caesarea Philippi

Matt. 16:28 Mark 9:1 Luke 9:27

Transfiguration: Sealing keys committed Mount Hermon or Tabor

Matt. 17:1–13 Mark 9:2–13 Luke 9:28–36

Heals demoniac child: Fasting, prayer Galilee

Matt. 17:14–21 Mark 9:14–29 Luke 9:37–43

Prophecy of death and resurrection Galilee

Matt. 17:22–23 Mark 9:30–32 Luke 9:43–45

Tribute coin in the mouth of a fish Capernaum

Matt. 17:24–27

Who is greatest in kingdom Galilee

Matt. 18:1–6 Mark 9:33–37 Luke 9:46–48

Discourse: Offenses and forgiveness Galilee

Matt. 18:7–35 Mark 9:38–50 Luke 17:1–4

Parable: Lost sheep (coin, prodigal son) Galilee

Matt. 18:12–14 Luke 15:1–7

Luke cf. 15:8–32

Sealing keys to be used Galilee

Matt. 18:18 John cf. 20:23

Parable: Unmerciful servant Galilee

Matt. 18:23–35

III. The Ministry of the Messiah. E. The Perean and later Judaean Ministry

EVENT LOCATION

Time of the Feast of Tabernacles Galilee

Mark cf. 3:20–21 John 7:2–9

Leaves Galilee (Luke's "travel narrative")

Matt. 19:1 Luke 9:51

Messengers sent into Samaria Samaria

Luke 9:52–53

Samaritan village rejects the apostles Samaria

Luke 9:54–56

Seventy appointed Capernaum (?)

Luke 10:1 D&C 107:25, 34, 38, 93–97

D&C 124:138–140

Seventy charged, sent Capernaum (?)

Luke 10:2–12

Jesus upbraids Capernaum, Bethsaida, and Chorazin Capernaum (?)

Matt. 11:20–24 Luke 10:13–16

Seventy return; authority confirmed Judaea (?)

Luke 10:17–20

Jesus' prayer and gratitude Judaea

Matt. 11:25–26 Luke 10:21

Jesus' promise of rest Judaea

Matt. 11:27–30 Luke 10:22 Alma 11–13

D&C 84:23–26

Parable: The good Samaritan Jerusalem

Luke 10:25–37

Mary, Martha: One thing needful Bethany

Luke 10:38–42

Friend at midnight Judaea

Luke 11:1, 5–8

Hear, keep the word Judaea

Luke 11:27–28

Coveteousness Judaea

Luke 12:13–21

Repentance Judaea

Luke 13:1–5

Woman healed on Sabbath Perea

Luke 13:10–17

Toward Jerusalem Perea

Luke 13:22

"Tell that fox" Perea

Luke 13:31–33

Counting the cost Perea

Luke 14:28–33

Parable: The unjust steward Perea

Luke 16:1–8

Parable: Lazarus and the rich man Perea

Luke 16:14–15, 19–31

Ten lepers healed Samaria (?)

Luke 17:11–19

Parable: The unjust judge Samaria (?)

Luke 18:1–8

Jesus enters Perea Perea

Matt. 19:1 Mark 10:1

Healings in Perea Perea

Matt. 19:2

Jesus attends Feast of Tabernacles Jerusalem

John 7:10–13

The doctrine of the Father Temple

John 7:14–36

The Spirit testifies of Jesus' ministry Temple

John 7:37–53

The adulterous woman Temple

John 8:1–11

The light of the world Temple

John 8:12–59

Blind man healed on the Sabbath Jerusalem

John 9:1–41

Parable: The good shepherd Jerusalem

John 10:1–21 3 Ne. 15:17–24

Pharisees ask about divorce Perea

Matt. 19:3–12 Mark 10:2–12 John cf. 8:6

Suffer little children Perea

Matt. 19:13–15 Mark 10:13–16 Luke 18:15–17

Rich young ruler Perea

Matt. 19:16–26 Mark 10:17–27 Luke 18:18–27

The Twelve to judge the tribes of Israel Perea

Matt. 19:27–30 Mark 10:28–31 Luke 18:28–30 1 Ne. 12:7–10

Luke 22:28–30

Parable: Laborers in vineyard Perea

Matt. 20:1–16 Mark cf. 10:31

The Feast of Dedication Jerusalem

John 10:22–39

Admirers of the Baptist believe Bethabara, Perea

John 10:40–42

Summoned to Lazarus Perea

John 11:1–7

Prophecy of death and resurrection Leaving Perea

Matt. 20:17–19 Mark 10:32–34 Luke 18:31–34

The greatest is to minister Jericho

Matt. 20:20–28 Mark 10:35–45 Luke 22:24–27

Two blind men healed (Bartimaeus) Leaving Jericho

Matt. 20:29–34 Mark 10:46–52 Luke 18:35–43

Salvation comes to house of Zacchaeus Jericho

Luke 19:1–10

Parable of the pounds Jericho

Luke 19:11–27

Lazarus restored Bethany

Luke cf. 19:28 John 11:8–53

Retires to Ephraim Ephraim

John 11:54

IV. The Last Week: Atonement and Resurrection

EVENT LOCATION

To Jerusalem for Passover

John 11:55–57

The sixth day before Passover Bethany, Bethphage

John 12:1

A supper at Martha and Mary's Bethany

John 12:2

Jesus anointed by Mary Bethany

John 12:3

Judas's protest Bethany

John 12:4–8

People gather to Jesus, Lazarus Bethany (?)

John 12:9

Conspiracy against Lazarus Jerusalem

John 12:10–11

The fifth day before Passover

John 12:12

Prophecy fulfilled Mount of Olives

Matt. 21:1–5 Mark 11:1–6 Luke 19:28–34

Triumphal entry Jerusalem

Matt. 21:6–11 Mark 11:7–11 Luke 19:35–38 John 12:12–18

Pharisees disapprove Jerusalem

Luke 19:39–40 John 12:19

Jesus weeps over Jerusalem Near Jerusalem

Luke 19:41–44

Greeks wish to see Jesus Jerusalem

John 12:20–22

Discourse: Jesus sent by the Father Jerusalem

John 12:23–50

Moneychangers cast out Jerusalem

Matt. 21:12–16 Mark 11:15–19 Luke 19:45–48

The fourth day before Passover

Matt. 21:17–18 Mark 11:12

Fig-tree cursed, withers Near Bethany

Matt. 21:18–22 Mark 11:12–14, 20–26 Luke cf. 13:6–9

Priests challenge Jesus' authority Temple

Matt. 21:23–46 Mark 11:27–33 Luke 20:1–8

Parable: Two sons Temple

Matt. 21:28–32

Parable: Wicked husbandmen Temple

Matt. 21:33–46 Mark 12:1–12 Luke 20:9–20

Parable: Wedding of a king's son Temple

Matt. 22:1–14 Luke cf. 14:1–24

Tribute to Caesar: Pharisees and Herodians Temple

Matt. 22:15–22 Mark 12:13–17 Luke 20:21–26

Marriage, seven husbands: Sadducees Temple

Matt. 22:23–33 Mark 12:18–27 Luke 20:27–38

Great commandment: Pharisees Temple

Matt. 22:34–40 Mark 12:28–31 Luke 10:25–37

Pharisees put to silence Temple

Matt. 22:41–46 Mark 12:35–37 Luke 20:39–44

Widow's mite Temple

Mark 12:41–44 Luke 21:1–4

Denunciation of hypocrisy Temple

Matt. 23:1–36 Mark 12:38–40 Luke 11:37–54

Luke 18:9–14

Luke 20:45–47

Jesus' lament over Jerusalem Near Jerusalem

Matt. 23:37–39 Luke 13:34–35

Discourse: Signs of second coming Mount of Olives

Matt. 24:1–51 Mark 13:1–37 Luke 12:37–48 JS-M 1:1–55

Luke 17:20–37 HC 5:336

Luke 21:5–38

Parable: Ten virgins Mount of Olives

Matt. 25:1–13 Luke cf. 12:35–36 D&C 45:56–59

Parable: Talents Mount of Olives

Matt. 25:14–30

Parable: Sheep, goats Mount of Olives

Matt. 25:31–46

The second day before Passover

Matt. 26:2 Mark 14:1

Jesus' prophecy of Passover crucifixion Near Jerusalem

Matt. 26:2

Conspiracy at Caiaphas's palace Jerusalem

Matt. 26:3–5 Mark 14:1–2

Feast with Simon the Pharisee Bethany

Matt. 26:6 Mark 14:3 Luke 7:36

Jesus anointed by a woman Bethany

Matt. 26:7–13 Mark 14:3–9 Luke 7:37–50

Judas's conspiracy to betray Jesus Jerusalem

Matt. 26:14–16 Mark 14:10–11 Luke 22:1–6

The first day of unleavened bread Jerusalem

Matt. 26:17–19 Mark 14:12–16 Luke 22:7–13

Eve of the Passover Jerusalem

Matt. 26:20 Mark 14:17 Luke 22:13–14 John 13:1–2

"One of you shall betray me" Jerusalem

Matt. 26:21–24 Mark 14:18–21 Luke 22:21–23 John 13:18–22

Betrayer identified Jerusalem

Matt. 26:25 John 13:23–30

Sacrament instituted Jerusalem

Matt. 26:26–29 Mark 14:22–25 Luke 22:15–20

Jesus washes disciples' feet Jerusalem

John 13:2–5

Peter's protest Jerusalem

John 13:6–12 JST John 13:10–11

Jesus' example Jerusalem

John 13:13–17

A new commandment Jerusalem

John 13:31–35

Jesus comforts the disciples Jerusalem

John 14:1–15

Another comforter Jerusalem

John 14:16–31

The true vine Jerusalem

John 15:1–8

Love one another Jerusalem

John 15:9–17

Hatred of the world Jerusalem

John 15:18–25

The Spirit of truth testifies Jerusalem

John 15:26–27

Warnings to the apostles Jerusalem

John 16:1–6

The Comforter Jerusalem

John 16:7–16

Opposition: Joy and sorrow Jerusalem

John 16:17–30

Prophecy: Flock to be scattered Jerusalem

Matt. 26:31–32 Mark 14:27 John 16:31–33

Jesus' advocatory prayer Jerusalem

John 17:1–26

Retirement to Gethsemane Mount of Olives

Matt. 26:30 Mark 14:26 Luke 22:39 John 18:1

Peter: "When thou art converted ..." Jerusalem

Luke 22:31–32

Prophecy: "Before the cock crow" Jerusalem

Matt. 26:33–35 Mark 14:29–31 Luke 22:33–34 John 13:36–38

"Reckoned among the transgressors" Jerusalem

Luke 22:35–38

Jesus' suffering and prayers Gethsemane

Matt. 26:36–46 Mark 14:32–42 Luke 22:40–46 2 Ne. 9:21–22

Mosiah 3:5–12

D&C 19:1–24

Judas's betrayal Gethsemane

Matt. 26:47–50 Mark 14:43–46 Luke 22:47–48 John 18:2–3

Arresting officers fall Gethsemane

John 18:4–9

Peter defends Jesus with a sword Gethsemane

Matt. 26:51–54 Mark 14:47 Luke 22:49–53 John 18:10–11

Disciples flee Gethsemane

Matt. 26:56 Mark 14:50

Jesus arrested Gethsemane

Matt. 26:55–57 Mark 14:46–52 Luke 22:52–54 John 18:12

Hearing before chief priests Caiaphas's palace

Matt. 26:57–68 Mark 14:53–65 Luke 22:54 John 18:13, 19–24

Peter's denial Caiaphas's palace

Matt. 26:69–75 Mark 14:66–72 Luke 22:55–62 John 18:15–18, 25–27

Soldiers mock Jesus Caiaphas's palace

Luke 22:63–65

The next morning Jerusalem

Matt. 27:1 Mark 15:1 Luke 22:66 John 18:28

Hearing before Caiaphas Jerusalem

Matt. 27:1 Mark 15:1 Luke 22:66–71 John 18:24, 28

Hearing before Pilate Jerusalem

Matt. 27:2, 11–14 Mark 15:1–5 Luke 23:1–6 John 18:28–38

Judas's remorse and death Temple

Matt. 27:3–10

Hearing before Herod Jerusalem

Luke 23:7–10

Herod and soldiers mock Jesus Jerusalem

Luke 23:11–12

Second hearing before Pilate Antonia

Matt. 27:15–31 Mark 15:6–15 Luke 23:11–17

A murderer released Jerusalem

Matt. 27:15–21, 26 Mark 15:6–15 Luke 23:18–25 John 18:39–40

Blood guiltiness Jerusalem

Matt. 27:24–25 Luke cf. 23:4, 14, 22 John cf. 19:4

Jesus scourged and mocked Jerusalem

Matt. 27:27–31 Mark 15:15–20 John 19:1–12

Jesus taken to Golgotha Near Jerusalem

Matt. 27:32–34 Mark 15:20–23 Luke 23:26–31 John 19:13–17

The crucifixion Calvary

Matt. 27:35–44 Mark 15:24–33 Luke 23:32–43 John 19:18–22 Hel. 14:20–27

3 Ne. 8:5–22

3 Ne. 10:9

Soldiers cast lots for Jesus' robe Calvary near Jerusalem

Matt. 27:35 Mark 15:24 Luke 23:34 John 19:23–24

The sign: King of the Jews Calvary near Jerusalem

Matt. 27:37 Mark 15:26 Luke 23:38 John 19:19–22

Darkness: Sixth to ninth hour Jerusalem

Matt. 27:45 Mark 15:33–36 Luke 23:44–45

Jesus' mother put in John's care Calvary

John 19:25–27

Death of Jesus Christ Calvary

Matt. 27:46–50 Mark 15:37 Luke 23:46 John 19:28–30

Earthquake: Veil of temple rent Jerusalem

Matt. 27:51–53 Mark 15:38 Luke 23:45

Pierced by a spear Calvary

John 19:31–34

Passover scripture fulfilled Calvary

John 19:35–37

Watchers near the cross Calvary

Matt. 27:54–56 Mark 15:39–41 Luke 23:47–49

Jesus' burial Near Jerusalem

Matt. 27:57–61 Mark 15:42–47 Luke 23:50–56 John 19:38–42

Chief priests and Pharisees seal the tomb Near Jerusalem

Matt. 27:62–66

First day: Earthquake, angels open tomb Near Jerusalem

Matt. 28:1–2 Luke 24:1–2 JST Matt. 28:1–2

Mary Magdalene comes to the open tomb Near Jerusalem

John 20:1–2

Peter and John run to the tomb Near Jerusalem

Luke 24:12, 24 John 20:3–10

"Woman, why weepest thou?" Near Jerusalem

John 20:11–13

"Touch me not" Near Jerusalem

John 20:14–17

Disciples told but disbelieve Near Jerusalem

Mark 16:10–11 Luke 24:9–11 John 20:18

Two Marys come to the tomb Near Jerusalem

Matt. 28:1 Mark 16:1–4 Luke 23:55

Luke 24:3

Angels: "He is risen" Near Jerusalem

Matt. 28:2–8 Mark 16:5–8 Luke 24:4–8

Women meet Jesus Near Jerusalem

Matt. 28:9–10 Mark 16:9

Officials bribe soldiers Near Jerusalem

Matt. 28:11–15

Jesus appears to two disciples Emmaus

Mark 16:12 Luke 24:13–32

Two tell others who disbelieve Jerusalem

Mark 16:13 Luke 24:33–35

Evening: Jesus appears to disciples Jerusalem

Mark 16:14 Luke 24:36–49 John 20:19–23

Thomas, absent, does not believe Jerusalem

John 20:24–25

Eight days later: With Thomas Jerusalem

John 20:26–29

Purpose of John's Gospel

John 20:30–31

Peter: "I go a fishing" Sea of Galilee

John 21:1–19

Peter inquires about John Jerusalem

John 21:20–22

Testimony about John Jerusalem

John 21:23–25 3 Ne. 28:6

D&C 7

The great commission to the Twelve A mountain of Galilee

Matt. 28:16–20 Mark 16:15–18 Morm. 9:22–24

Ascension, proclamation Near Jerusalem

Mark 16:19–20 Luke 24:50–53

Gourd. In Jonah 4:6–10, = castor-oil plant, Ricinus communis or palma-Christi, a plant of very rapid growth; in 2 Kgs. 4:38–40 = the colocynth, which has vine-shaped leaves, hence is called "wild vine."

Gozan. A district between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to which Tiglath-pileser carried the Israelites captive (2 Kgs. 17:6; 18:11; 19:12; 1 Chr. 5:26; Isa. 37:12).

Grace. A word that occurs frequently in the New Testament, especially in the writings of Paul. The main idea of the word is divine means of help or strength, given through the bounteous mercy and love of Jesus Christ.

It is through the grace of the Lord Jesus, made possible by his atoning sacrifice, that mankind will be raised in immortality, every person receiving his body from the grave in a condition of everlasting life. It is likewise through the grace of the Lord that individuals, through faith in the atonement of Jesus Christ and repentance of their sins, receive strength and assistance to do good works that they otherwise would not be able to maintain if left to their own means. This grace is an enabling power that allows men and women to lay hold on eternal life and exaltation after they have expended their own best efforts.

Divine grace is needed by every soul in consequence of the fall of Adam and also because of man's weaknesses and shortcomings. However, grace cannot suffice without total effort on the part of the recipient. Hence the explanation, "It is by grace that we are saved, after all we can do" (2 Ne. 25:23). It is truly the grace of Jesus Christ that makes salvation possible. This principle is expressed in Jesus' parable of the vine and the branches (John 15:1–11). See also John 1:12–17; Eph. 2:8–9; Philip. 4:13; D&C 93:11–14.

Great Sea = the Mediterranean (Num. 34:6–7; Josh. 15:12, 47).

Grecians. Jews of the dispersion (Hellenists) who spoke Greek (Acts 6:1; 9:29). Grecians in Acts 11:20 should be rendered Greeks to convey the proper thought, meaning persons of Greek lineage.

Greece. Mentioned in the O.T. by its Hebrew name Javan (Gen. 10:2–5, 20; 11:2; Zech. 9:13). The name only occurs once in the N.T., in Acts 20:2, where it is a translation of Hellas and denotes the southern part of the Greek peninsula, elsewhere in N.T. called Achaia. In N.T. times Greece formed part of the Roman empire.

The Greeks were a highly educated race, and their civilization, culture, and philosophy were of great service to the Church. Every educated man in the Roman Empire spoke Greek, and it was in the Greek language that the gospel was preached as soon as it spread outside Palestine. Care must be taken to distinguish between Greeks and Grecians. The Greeks, or Hellenes, are men who are Greek by descent (John 12:20; Acts 14:1); Grecians, or Hellenists, are Greek-speaking Jews (Acts 6:1).

Grove. In Hebrew, called Asherah (of which the plural is Asherim or Asheroth), either a living tree or a tree-like pole, set up as an object of worship, being symbolical of the female or productive principle in nature. Every Phoenician altar had an asherah near it. The word is often translated "green trees" or "grove." This "nature worship" became associated with gross immorality, and so the practice of setting up such "groves" or idols was forbidden by Hebrew prophets (Deut. 16:21; cf. Num. 25:3; Judg. 2:11–13; 1 Sam. 7:3–4; 1 Kgs. 11:5; Isa. 17:8; Micah 5:12 ff.).

Habaiah. The head of a family of priests who returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:61; Neh. 7:63). Their genealogy was imperfect, and so they were not allowed to serve.

Habakkuk. A prophet of Judah. The date at which he prophesied is uncertain—possibly in the reign of Josiah or of Jehoiakim (c. 600 B.C.). Nothing beyond this is known about him. In ch. 1 the prophet complains that his outcries against wrong-doing in Judah remain unheard by God; but he is assured that punishment by the Chaldeans is close at hand. This raises the problem as to why the pure and holy God should use for the working out of his purposes such a sinful nation. Ch. 2 supplies a solution to the problem: the Chaldeans themselves will come under judgment (cf. Morm. 4:5). Ch. 3 contains a lyrical poem, describing the coming of Jehovah to judge and to deliver his people.

Habergeon. A smaller kind of hauberk, a coat of mail covering the neck and breast (Ex. 28:32; 39:23).

Hadad. Although not mentioned as a pagan deity in the O.T., it is learned from the Ras Shamrah tablets that Hadad was the name of the sun god, or storm god of Syria and Edom. Hadad appears in the O.T. in compound with other names and also standing alone, as the name of several persons (Gen. 36:35; 1 Kgs. 11:14–25; 15:18–20; 20:1–34; 1 Chr. 1:30, 46, 50; Amos 1:4; Zech. 12:11), the most prominent being Ben-Hadad, king of Damascus (Syria).

Hades. See Hell.

Hagar. Flight. An Egyptian handmaid of Sarah and mother of Abraham's son Ishmael (Gen. 16:1–16; 21:9–21; 25:12). After the birth of Isaac, the "child of promise," Hagar and her son were expelled. Paul uses the story as an allegory to show the difference between the two covenants, the one a covenant of bondage and the other one of freedom (Gal. 4:24).

Haggai. A prophet in Jerusalem soon after the return from the Exile (Ezra 5:1; 6:14). His prophecy was spoken about 520 B.C. The two chapters of the book of Haggai contain an exhortation to the people to be more zealous about the public worship of God and the rebuilding of his temple. His preaching produced the desired effect (1:14–15). In ch. 2 he consoles those who were distressed by the mean appearance of the temple in comparison with its former beauty, by the assurance that the day of the Lord is near, and that then the glory of the latter house should be greater than that of the former. But he warns them that just as the touch of the unclean pollutes all about it, so the worldly spirit of the people had brought a curse on all their labor and increase. He looks forward into the future hopefully, certain that in spite of present depression the nation is capable of greater things.

Hagiographa. A Greek word meaning sacred writings. Although the word Hagiographa does not occur in the English Bible, it is used frequently in commentary and historical works, having reference to the third division of the O.T., commonly called the Writings. It consists of the books of Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, and Chronicles, making 11 in all (in Hebrew Bibles Ezra-Nehemiah are counted as one book, as are also 1, 2 Chronicles).

Halah. A district of Assyria, north of Thapsacus, to which the captive Israelites were taken by Shalmaneser (2 Kgs. 17:6; 18:11; 1 Chr. 5:26).

Hallel. A name given to the group of Psalms (113–118) recited by Jews at the great feasts (cf. Matt. 26:30; Mark 14:26). Ps. 136 was generally known as the "Great Hallel."

Hallelujah. Praise ye the Lord. A doxology found at the beginning or the end of a large number of Psalms (e.g., see Ps. 146:1; also Rev. 19:1–6).

Ham. Hot. Son of Noah (Gen. 5:32; 6:10; 7:13); cursed (9:18–22). The names of his descendants are given in 10:6–7; they were the southern nations: Cush = the dark-skinned race of eastern Africa and southern Arabia; Mizraim = Egyptians; Phut = Libyans; Canaan = inhabitants of Palestine before arrival of the Semitic races. See also Abr. 1:21–27, where we learn among other things that Ham's wife and daughter were named Egyptus, and that a portion of Ham's descendants settled in Egypt. Cf. Ps. 78:51; 105:23; 106:22.

Haman. Chief minister of Ahasuerus (Esth. 3–9); his unsuccessful attempt to destroy the Jews gave rise to the Jewish Feast of Purim.

Hamath. An important city of Syria, in the valley of the Orontes; the "entering in of Hamath" was the northern limit of the Promised Land (Num. 34:8; Josh. 13:5). Toi, king of Hamath, was on friendly terms with David (2 Sam. 8:10). The city seems to have come under the dominion of Solomon (1 Kgs. 4:21–24; 2 Chr. 8:4). It was afterwards taken by the Assyrians (2 Kgs. 14:28). It is still a town of considerable importance.

Hananeel. God is gracious. A tower in the wall of Jerusalem, at the northeast corner of the city (Neh. 3:1; 12:39; Jer. 31:38; Zech. 14:10).

Hannah. Grace. Mother of Samuel, who was given to her in answer to prayer (1 Sam. 1:2—2:21). Her song of thanksgiving may be compared with that of Mary (Luke 1:46–55). It contains the first reference to the title Messiah ("his Anointed") (1 Sam. 2:10).

Hara. A place in Assyria, position uncertain, to which some of the northern tribes were taken captive (1 Chr. 5:26).

Haran. (1) Son of Terah and brother of Abraham. The father of Lot and also the father of Abraham's wife Sarah (Abr. 2:2), he died as the result of a severe famine in Ur of the Chaldees (Gen. 11:26–31; Abr. 2:1). (2) A Levite (1 Chr. 23:9).

Haran. The place of Abraham's (Abram's) first settlement on leaving Ur of the Chaldees; apparently named in memory of Abraham's deceased brother Haran. It was a place of many flocks, and Terah, Abraham's father, tarried there. The Lord appeared to Abraham at Haran (Gen. 11:29–32; Abr. 2:4–6). It was in the district near the source of the Euphrates, and was a trading center of great importance, frequently mentioned in Assyrian inscriptions. It continued to be a flourishing city for many centuries. Acts 7:2 renders the word "Charran."

Hare. Mentioned only in Lev. 11:6 and Deut. 14:7 as an animal forbidden as food, not having a cloven hoof.

Harp. First mentioned Gen. 4:21. The favorite musical instrument among the Jews (cf. Ps. 137:2), it corresponded to the modern guitar or small harp.

Hart. A fallow-deer or a roebuck, mentioned as fit for food (Deut. 12:22; see also Ps. 42:1; Isa. 35:6; Song. 2:8–9).

Hasidaeans. Pious. A religious party among the Jews (their Hebrew name being Chasidim), devoted to the observance and maintenance of the Mosaic law (1 Macc. 2:42; 7:13; 2 Macc. 14:6). From them were descended the Pharisees of N.T. times.

Hasmonaean. The family name of the Maccabees.

Havilah. (1) One of the five sons of Cush, the son of Ham; the Cushites occupied Upper Egypt. (2) Son of Joktan, a descendant of Shem; the Joktanites were settled in the south of Arabia (Gen. 10:29; 1 Chr. 1:23). (3) A land mentioned in the description of Eden (Gen. 2:11–12).

Hazael. King of Syria from about 886 to 840 B.C. Frequently mentioned in the lives of Elijah and Elisha (1 Kgs. 19:15, 17; 2 Kgs. 8:8–14). He became king by murdering his master Ben-hadad (2 Kgs. 8:15), and soon started on a war with Israel and Judah for the possession of Ramoth-gilead (8:28–29; 9:14–15). We learn from Assyrian inscriptions that he was attacked and defeated in Damascus by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria; but a few years later he was again strong enough to attack Israel (2 Kgs. 10:32; 12:17–18; 13:3–7, 22; 2 Chr. 24:24).

Health. In old English this word denoted healing power, deliverance, salvation. In Isa. 58:8 it means healing; in Ps. 67:2, saving health = salvation; in Acts 27:34, health = safety.

Heaven. This term has several meanings in the scriptures. It is first of all the place where God lives and the future home of the saints (Gen. 28:12; Ps. 11:4; Matt. 6:9). It also means the expanse around the earth, as the heavens (Gen. 1:1, 17; Ex. 24:10). It is usually thought of as being "up," or above the earth (cf. Alma 18:30–32). In the sense of being God's home and the ultimate place for the faithful, it is clearly distinguished from paradise, which is the temporary abode of the faithful spirits of persons who have lived and died on this earth. Jesus visited paradise after his death on the cross, but on the third day thereafter, he informed Mary that he had not yet been to the Father (see Luke 23:39–44; John 20:17).

Hebrew. The name is first found in Gen. 14:13, where it may mean "one who had come from beyond (the Euphrates)," from 'Eber, to cross; or it may be derived from the Eber mentioned in Gen. 10:25. The Hebrew language is one of a family called the Semitic languages (spoken by the descendants of Shem, the son of Noah). It was probably learned by Abraham after his settlement in Canaan and adopted by him in place of the Aramaic of his earlier years. It was spoken by all Israelites until after the return from captivity. About the 4th century B.C. it began to be replaced by what is called Western Aramaic. Hebrew remained the language of the learned, of the law, and of religious literature; but in the time of our Lord Aramaic was the language of ordinary intercourse.

Hebrews, Epistle to. See Pauline Epistles.

Hebron. An ancient city of Judah, 3,040 feet above the Mediterranean, 20 miles south of Jerusalem; known also as Mamre and Kirjath-Arba (Gen. 13:18; 35:27). It was the burying place of Abraham and his family (23:2, 19; 49:29–32), and became the property of Caleb (Josh. 14:13–15). It was one of the six cities of refuge (Josh. 20:7), a Levitical city (Josh. 21:11, 13), and David's capital during the earlier part of his reign (2 Sam. 5:3–5). During the later history of the nation it continued to be a place of importance, and it still has a large population.

Hell. An English translation of the Hebrew word Sheol, hell signifies an abode of departed spirits and corresponds to the Greek Hades. In common speech it generally denotes the place of torment for the wicked, although it has been often held, both in the Jewish and the Christian churches, that Hades (meaning broadly the place of all departed spirits) consists of two parts, paradise and Gehenna, one the abode of the righteous and the other of the disobedient. "Gehenna," or "Gehenna of fire," is the Greek equivalent of the "valley of Hinnom," a deep glen of Jerusalem where the idolatrous Jews offered their children to Moloch (2 Chr. 28:3; 33:6; Jer. 7:31; 19:2–6). It was afterwards used as a place for burning the refuse of the city (2 Kgs. 23:10), and in that way became symbolical of the place of torment (Matt. 5:22, 29–30; 10:28; 18:9; 23:15, 33; Mark 9:43, 45, 47; Luke 12:5; James 3:6). Expressions about "hell-fire" are probably due to the impression produced on men's minds by the sight of this ceaseless burning, and are figurative of the torment of those who willfully disobey God.

In latter-day revelation hell is spoken of in at least two senses. One is the temporary abode in the spirit world of those who were disobedient in this mortal life. It is between death and the resurrection, and persons who receive the telestial glory will abide there until the last resurrection (D&C 76:84–85, 106), at which time they will go to the telestial glory. In this sense the Book of Mormon speaks of spiritual death as hell (2 Ne. 9:10–12). Hell, as thus defined, will have an end, when all the captive spirits have paid the price of their sins and enter into a degree of glory after their resurrection. Statements about an everlasting hell (Hel. 6:28; Moro. 8:13) must be interpreted in their proper context in the light of D&C 19:4–12, which defines eternal and endless punishment.

On the other hand, the devil and his angels, including the sons of perdition, are assigned to a place spoken of as a lake of fire—a figure of eternal anguish. This condition is sometimes called hell in the scriptures (2 Pet. 2:4; D&C 29:38; 88:113). This kind of hell, which is after the resurrection and judgment, is exclusively for the devil and his angels, and is not the same as that consisting only of the period between death and resurrection. The one group are redeemed from hell and inherit some degree of glory. The other receive no glory. They continue in spiritual darkness. For them the conditions of hell remain.

Hellenists. The word denotes those who adopt the Greek language, and possibly also Greek modes of life. The KJV does not use the word itself, but translates it "Grecians" (Acts 6:1; 9:29, etc.). The Hellenists were Jews who had settled in Greek-speaking countries, and themselves used that language. It was for their use that the Greek translation of the O.T., the Septuagint, was made.

Helps. In Acts 27:17 the word denotes cables passed around the hull of a ship and tightly secured on deck to prevent the timbers from starting, especially amidship, where in ancient ships with one large mast the strain was very great. The technical English word to describe the operation is frapping. In 1 Cor. 12:28 the word is used in describing the gifts of the Spirit, and denotes administrative offices, programs, and other like provisions placed in the Church, designed to assist the members to obey the commandments and strengthen one another.

Helve. The handle of an axe (Deut. 19:5).

Hem of garment. An important part of an Israelite's dress, owing to the regulation in Num. 15:38–39. It was really a tassel at each "wing" or corner of the tallith or mantle (Matt. 14:36). The law required that it should be bound with a thread of blue, the color of heaven. The strict Jews to this day wear these tassels, though they are usually concealed. The Pharisees made them conspicuously large (Matt. 23:5). It would be the tassel that hung over the shoulder at the back that the woman with the issue of blood came and touched (Luke 8:44; also Ex. 28:33–34).

Hemlock. A bitter and poisonous herb growing in the furrows of fields (Hosea 10:4; Amos 6:12).

Hephzibah. My delight is in her. Mother of King Manasseh (2 Kgs. 21:1). Isaiah (62:4) applies the name to Jerusalem.

Hermon. A mountain, 9,400 feet high, in the extreme northeast of the Holy Land, being the southern point of a range of hills called Anti-Libanus. It is visible not only from a great part of Galilee, but also from various places as far south as Jericho. The Hermonites (Ps. 42:6) are the three peaks of Mount Hermon. Jewish poetry contains several allusions to this mountain (Ps. 89:12; 133:3; Song. 4:8). It is probable that our Lord's transfiguration took place either on Hermon or on one of the adjacent heights (see Matt. 16:13—17:2).

Herod. The following genealogical table shows the relationship between the various members of the Herodian family mentioned in the N.T.

Herod, the king (Matt. 2:3)

By Mariamne the Maccabaean princess

Aristobulus

Herod Agrippa I (Acts 12:1–23)

Herod Agrippa II (Acts 25:13)

Bernice (Acts 25:13)

Drusilla, wife of Felix (Acts 24:24)

Herodias (Matt. 14:3; Mark 6:17)

By Mariamne daughter of Simon the high priest

Herod Philip (Matt. 14:3; Mark 6:17)

By Malthace, a Samaritan

Herod Antipas, the tetrarch (Matt. 14:1; Luke 9:7; Mark 6:14, king Herod)

Archelaus (Matt. 2:22)

By Cleopatra

Philip, tetrarch of Ituraea (Luke 3:1)

The Herodian family were Idumaeans by birth, but had become converts to the Jewish faith. Their object was to found, under the protection of Rome, a semi-independent kingdom. By his marriage with Mariamne Herod the Great allied himself with the family of the Maccabees, who had been for several generations the leaders of the patriotic party among the Jews. Herod was a successful ruler and was on terms of friendship with Augustus, the Roman Emperor. In order to gain favor with his subjects, with whom he was most unpopular, he rebuilt the temple at an immense cost. (See Temple of Herod.) His reign was disgraced by many acts of cruelty. In a fit of jealousy he had his wife, whom he dearly loved, put to death; later on he had her two sons, Alexander and Aristobulus, also murdered. In the same year in which he gave the order for the massacre of the infants at Bethlehem, he had Antipater, another of his own sons, put to death. A few months later Herod himself died. His kingdom was then divided between three of his sons: Archelaus, who received Judaea, Idumaea, and Samaria; Antipas, who had Galilee and Peraea; and Philip, who had the northeast districts of Palestine.

After a reign of nine years Archelaus was deposed by Augustus, and Judaea was attached to the Roman province of Syria, being governed by a Procurator. Antipas (called in the N.T. "Herod the tetrarch") built as his capital Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee; he is frequently mentioned in the Gospels (Matt. 14:1; Mark 6:14; Luke 9:7; 13:31; 23:7–15). He took as his wife Herodias, the wife of his half-brother Philip. He was deposed by the Emperor Caligula and banished to Lugdunum in Gaul, A.D. 39. Philip made Caesarea Philippi (previously called Panias) his capital, and remained in possession of his tetrarchy until his death in A.D. 33. His territory then became part of the province of Syria, but in A.D. 37 it was given by Caligula, along with Abilene (the tetrarchy of Lysanias), to Agrippa, who was allowed to assume the title of king. On the deposition of Antipas he obtained the tetrarchy of Galilee, and in A.D. 41, on the accession of the Emperor Claudius, he received Judaea and Samaria as well, and so became ruler of the whole territory governed by his grandfather. He lived in Jerusalem and was anxious to be regarded as an orthodox Jew. He began a persecution of the Church, and put James to death, Peter escaping by a miracle (Acts 12:1–23). His death is described in Acts 12:20–23. His son, Agrippa II, was allowed by the Emperor Claudius to succeed to only a small part of his father's dominions. He is mentioned in Acts 25:13. He was the last of the Herods.

Herodians. A political party among the Jews, supporters of the Herodian family, and therefore to some extent in opposition to the Roman government, and also to the Pharisees who were in favor of a purely religious theocracy (Matt. 22:16; Mark 3:6; 12:13).

Herodias. Sister of Herod Agrippa; married to her uncle, Herod Philip, by whom she had a daughter Salome (Matt. 14:6). She eloped in order to live as the wife of her step-uncle, Herod Antipas. It was for his rebuke of this crime that John the Baptist was put to death (Matt. 14:8–11; Mark 6:24–28; Luke 3:19).

Heth. A descendant of Ham, and father of the Hittites (Gen. 10:15; 23; 27:46).

Hezekiah. (1) King of Judah, and a great religious and political reformer (2 Kgs. 18—21:3; 2 Chr. 29—33:3; Isa. 36–39). He suppressed idolatry and reconstituted the temple services. In his reforms both in church and state he had the assistance of the great prophet Isaiah. The early part of the reign was prosperous. Hezekiah made a successful expedition against the Philistines (2 Chr. 28:18; 2 Kgs. 18:8), and refused to pay the usual tribute to Assyria (2 Kgs. 18:7). Soon after came two Assyrian invasions. The first, under Sargon, is referred to in Isa. 10:24–32. The second, under Sennacherib, is more fully described in 2 Kgs. 18:13—19:7. After a time of great anxiety the city was at length delivered, probably by a pestilence that broke out in the Assyrian camp. A year later Hezekiah died, after a reign of 29 years. (2) Three others (1 Chr. 3:23; Neh. 7:21; 10:17).

Hezekiah's Tunnel. An elaborate engineering scheme extending about 1770 feet through limestone rock, bringing the waters of Gihon spring inside the walls of Jerusalem to the pool of Siloam. The tunnel was built in the days of Hezekiah, about 701 B.C., as a defense against possible attack from the Assyrian army under Sennacherib (2 Kgs. 20:20; 2 Chr. 32:4, 30). Workmen dug from both ends, in a zig-zag course, until they met. A dramatic account of the meeting of the workmen is told by an inscription carved in stone near the Siloam end of the tunnel. It reads: "The boring through is completed. Now this is the story of the boring through. While the workmen were still lifting pick to pick, each toward his neighbor, and while three cubits remained to be cut through, each heard the voice of the other who called his neighbor, since there was a crevice in the rock on the right side. And on the day of the boring through the stonecutters struck, each to meet his fellow, pick to pick, and there flowed the waters to the pool for a thousand and two hundred cubits, and a hundred cubits was the height of the rock above the heads of the stonecutters."

The inscription has been removed from its original location and is now kept in the Turkish Archaeological Museum at Istanbul. The tunnel is still in use today.

Hiel. The Bethelite who rebuilt Jericho (1 Kgs. 16:34); and in whom was fulfilled the curse pronounced by Joshua (Josh. 6:26).

Hierapolis. A city of the Roman province of Asia, in the valley of the Lycus (Col. 4:13). The three towns Hierapolis, Colossae, and Laodicea were all close together.

High Places. Among early nations it was the custom to erect altars on hilltops (Gen. 12:7–8; 22:2–4; 31:54). After the settlement in Canaan heathen altars were found set up on various hills and were ordered to be destroyed (Num. 33:52; Deut. 12:2–3). Altars to Jehovah were built at several high places (Judg. 6:25–26; 1 Sam. 9:12–25; 10:5, 13; 1 Chr. 21:26; 1 Kgs. 3:2–4; 18:30). Such altars became local centers of the worship of Jehovah. When idolatry came in, many of these altars were desecrated and used for heathen worship. Religious reformers like Hezekiah and Josiah tried therefore to centralize the worship more and more in Jerusalem, where it could be better kept under control, and the high places were ordered to be removed, i.e., no sacrifices were to be offered anywhere except in Jerusalem (2 Kgs. 18:4, 22; 2 Chr. 31:1; 2 Kgs. 23; 2 Chr. 34:3; cf. Deut. 12:11–14).

High Priest. (1) An office in the Melchizedek Priesthood. Adam and all the patriarchs were high priests (D&C 107:53; Abr. 1:2). (2) Under the law of Moses the presiding officer of the Aaronic Priesthood was called the high priest. The office was hereditary and came through the firstborn among the family of Aaron, Aaron himself being the first high priest of the Aaronic order.

The duties of the high priest and his special vestments are outlined in the books of Exodus and Leviticus, the chief references being Ex. 28:6–42; 29:6; 39:27–29; Lev. 6:19–23; 21:10. The clothing was colorful, often white and blue, ornamented with golden bells and varicolored needlework. A breastplate of judgment was worn, containing the Urim and Thummim and 12 precious stones representing the tribes of Israel. On the high priest's head was the mitre or turban, made of fine linen (Ex. 39:28). Upon the forefront and attached to it by a blue lace was a plate or crown of pure gold (Ex. 28:36; 29:6). On the plate was engraved the legend "Holiness to the Lord."

The high priest was privileged to use the Urim and Thummim (Num. 27:21), and we read of it during Saul's time, but not afterward. It was apparently missing, but its restoration was hoped for during the time of the second temple (Ezra 2:63).

The high priest's main duties, in addition to the duties of a regular priest, were to perform the service of the Day of Atonement; to inquire God's will by the Urim and Thummim in the breastplate of his office; and to offer the sacrifices on Sabbaths, new moons, and yearly festivals. He also had to offer a meat offering twice daily for himself (Lev. 6:19–23). (See Meat Offering.) His consecration differed from that of ordinary priests in anointing and robing: on the high priest's head alone was the anointing oil poured (Lev. 21:10; Ps. 133:2); and his garments were of special significance and magnificence.

The office was usually a lifetime calling and, when rightly appointed, was by revelation from God, "as was Aaron" (Heb. 5:4). It was in the family of Eleazar, Aaron's third son, until the time of Eli, a descendant of Ithamar, Aaron's youngest son, into whose family it passed until it was restored to the family of Eleazar in the person of Zadok; it then continued in his family till the time of the Maccabees. During the Maccabaean period the high priest was also political head of the nation. After this family was overthrown, high priests were inappropriately appointed and deposed at pleasure by Herod and the Romans alike. The office was filled by 28 different men between 37 B.C. and A.D. 68. Since the latter year the office has ceased to exist among the Jews, but they were in apostasy long before that time.

The epistle to the Hebrews discusses at some length the manner in which Jesus Christ is the great High Priest, of whom all the others were pre-figures (Heb. 5:1–10; 9:28). See also Aaronic Priesthood; Breastplate.

Hill country. A geographical term of frequent occurrence (Josh. 13:6; 21:11; Luke 1:39, 65), denoting the ridge of hills extending from Jezreel to Beersheba, attaining a maximum elevation of about 3000 feet near Hebron. The hills are sometimes bare but more often covered with herbage and shrubbery; the lower slopes are adapted for the culture of the vine, and the valleys are often very fertile.

Hinnom, valley of. South and west of Jerusalem, it was the scene of the idolatrous worship of the fire-god Moloch (2 Chr. 28:3; 33:6; cf. 2 Kgs. 16:3; 21:6; Jer. 7:31; 32:35), and was afterwards used as a place of refuse (2 Kgs. 23:10–14). In N.T. times it was called Gehenna, and was regarded by the Jews as symbolical of the place of torment.

Hiram. (1) King of Tyre, a friend of David and Solomon (2 Sam. 5:11; 1 Kgs. 5; 9:11–14, 27; 10:11); called Huram (2 Chr. 2:3–12; 8:2, 18; 9:10, 21). (2) A Tyrian workman sent to Solomon (1 Kgs. 7:13, 40, 45); called Huram (2 Chr. 2:13; 4:11, 16).

Hittites. The ancient people descended from Heth (Gen. 10:15). They were a branch of the Canaanites, and in the Bible the name denotes all the Canaanite (as distinguished from the Aramaean or Syrian) nations that lived north of Palestine from the Orontes to the Euphrates (1 Kgs. 10:29; 2 Kgs. 7:6). Their empire extended to the extreme northwest of Asia Minor, and they were strong enough to contend on equal terms with the kings of Egypt and Assyria. Their love of literature may be traced in the name of the Hittite Kirjath-Sepher ("city of books"); their art is evident by the curious sculptures found at Carchemish, one of their capitals, and elsewhere. Judging by the representations of them on Egyptian monuments, they had dark hair and eyes, yellow skin, and receding foreheads and chins.

Hivites. A Canaanitish race (Gen. 10:17; 34:2; Ex. 3:8, 17; 13:5; Josh. 9:7; 11:19). A colony of Hivites, settled in Gibeon, made a treaty with Joshua, having deceived him by a stratagem; but the main body appear to have lived in northern Palestine (Josh. 11:3; Judg. 3:3; 2 Sam. 24:7).

Holiness. According to the O.T. things or places were holy that were set apart for a sacred purpose; the opposite of holy is therefore common or profane (1 Sam. 21:5; Ezek. 22:26; 42:20; 44:23; 48:13–15). Similarly a holy person meant one who held a sacred office. The Israelites were a holy people because they stood in a special relationship to Jehovah. Under the guidance of the Prophets it was seen that what distinguished Jehovah from the gods of the heathen was his personal character. The word holy therefore came to refer to moral character (Lev. 11:44; 19:2; 21:8; Isa. 6:3–8). Israel must be holy in character because the God of Israel was holy (Jer. 7:4–7; cf. Matt. 5:48). The Law of Holiness (Lev. 17–26) shows how the attempt was made by means of ceremonial observances to secure this holiness of character. The attempt failed because the later Jews observed the letter and neglected the spirit; they attached more importance to the ceremonial than to the moral; and the result was a lapse into formalism. But in the writings of the Prophets it is clearly laid down that the value of worship in the eyes of God depends upon the personal character of the worshipper.

Holy Ghost. The third member of the Godhead and, as the name implies, a personage of Spirit, not possessing a body of flesh and bones (D&C 130:21–22). The Holy Ghost has been manifest in every dispensation of the gospel since the beginning, being first made known to Adam (1 Ne. 10:17–22; Moses 6:51–68). The Holy Ghost is manifested to men on the earth both as the power of the Holy Ghost and as the gift of the Holy Ghost. The power can come upon one before baptism, and is the convincing witness that the gospel is true. It gives one a testimony of Jesus Christ and of his work and the work of his servants upon the earth. The gift can come only after proper and authorized baptism, and is conferred by the laying on of hands, as in Acts 8:12–25 and Moroni 2:1–3. The gift of the Holy Ghost is the right to have, whenever one is worthy, the companionship of the Holy Ghost. More powerful than that which is available before baptism, it acts as a cleansing agent to purify a person and sanctify him from all sin. Thus it is often spoken of as "fire" (Matt. 3:11; 2 Ne. 31:17; D&C 19:31). The manifestation on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2) was the gift of the Holy Ghost that came upon the Twelve, without which they were not ready for their ministries to the world.

For some reason not fully explained in the scriptures, the Holy Ghost did not operate in the fulness among the Jews during the years of Jesus' mortal sojourn (John 7:39; 16:7). Statements to the effect that the Holy Ghost did not come until after Jesus was resurrected must of necessity refer to that particular dispensation only, for it is abundantly clear that the Holy Ghost was operative in earlier dispensations. Furthermore, it has reference only to the gift of the Holy Ghost not being present, since the power of the Holy Ghost was operative during the ministries of John the Baptist and Jesus; otherwise no one would have received a testimony of the truths that these men taught (cf. Matt. 16:16–17; 1 Cor. 12:3). When a person speaks by the power of the Holy Ghost that same power carries a conviction of the truth into the heart of the hearer (2 Ne. 33:1). The Holy Ghost knows all things (D&C 35:19) and can lead one to know of future events (2 Pet. 1:21).

Other names that sometimes refer to the Holy Ghost are Holy Spirit, Spirit of God, Spirit of the Lord, Comforter, and Spirit.

Holy of Holies. Also called Most Holy Place. The most sacred room in the tabernacle and, later, in the temple, as contrasted with the Holy Place. See Tabernacle.

Holy One of Israel. A name for the Savior used 34 times in the Old Testament, most frequently by Isaiah, who cites it 28 times (27 times in the book of Isaiah and once in 2 Kgs. 19:22). It appears three times in the Psalms (71:22; 78:41; 89:18), twice in Jeremiah (50:29; 51:5), and once in Ezekiel (39:7). Some references in Isaiah are 1:4; 5:19; 12:6; 30:11, 12, 15; 48:17; 60:14. The term is used frequently in the Book of Mormon, especially in 1 and 2 Nephi. The Holy One of Israel is identified as Christ in 2 Ne. 25:29.

Holy Place. A sacred room in the tabernacle and also in the temple. For particulars see Tabernacle.

Holy Spirit. See Holy Ghost.

Homer. See Weights and Measures.

Hor. A mountain, 4580 feet high, some 60 miles due south of the Dead Sea, on which Aaron died (Num. 20:22–29; 33:37–41). A Muslim chapel indicates the traditional site of his tomb.

Horeb. Another name for Sinai (Ex. 3:1; Deut. 1:6; 4:10; 1 Kgs. 19:8; Mal. 4:4; 3 Ne. 25:4).

Horse. Most of the allusions to horses that occur in the Bible refer to their use in war. They were not used at all by the early Hebrews; Solomon introduced them from Egypt. The Canaanites, in the time of Joshua, made use of war-horses and chariots (Josh. 11:9), but they could only be used in plains and level country. In Job 39:19–25 there is a description of a war-horse. There is only one allusion to the horse being employed for agricultural purposes among the Jews, namely, for threshing grain (Isa. 28:28).

Hosanna = save now. The word is taken from Ps. 118:25, one of the Psalms of the Hallel. The chanting of this psalm was connected at the Feast of Tabernacles with the waving of palm branches; hence the use of the word by the multitudes at our Lord's triumphal entry into Jerusalem (Matt. 21:9, 15; Mark 11:9, 10; John 12:13).

Hosea, or Hoshea. Son of Beeri, and the only prophet of the northern kingdom who has left written prophecies. He began to prophesy during the latter part of the reign of Jeroboam II. He probably died before the accession of Pekah, 736 B.C., for he makes no allusion to the Syro-Ephraimitic war nor to the deportation of the northern tribes by Tiglath-pileser two years later. He lived during a time of national decline and ruin, the result of the sin of Israel. Hosea's fundamental idea is the love of God for his people. In love God redeemed them from Egypt (11:1); their history has been but an illustration of his love (11–13); all his chastisements are inflicted in love (2:14; 3); and their restoration shall be due to his love (2:19; 14:4). In contrast with this moral Being, who is Love, Hosea sets Israel, characterized always by want of affection, by treachery and infidelity. Yet he is able to look forward to a final redemption (2:19; 11:12—14:9). The profound thought and pathos of this prophet of the north deeply influenced succeeding writers (see Isa. 40–66; Jer. 2; 3; Ezek. 16; 33).

Hospitality. This has always been regarded by Eastern nations as a duty of the highest importance. Gen. 18:1–5; 19:1–3; Ex. 2:20; Judg. 13:15; 19:20–21 tell of instances of the readiness with which hospitality was offered to strangers. Such hospitality was a necessity of desert life. A host was bound at all cost to protect the life and property of his guest, even though previously unknown to him. To taste another man's salt was to establish a claim on his protection. The N.T. enjoins the duty even more emphatically (e.g., Matt. 10:42; 25:43; Rom. 12:13; 1 Tim. 3:2; Titus 1:8; Heb. 13:2; 1 Pet. 4:9).

Hough. To cut the houghs or hamstrings of animals, so as to disable them (Josh. 11:6; 2 Sam. 8:4).

Hour. The division of the day into hours was probably borrowed by the Jews from the Babylonians, who were careful astronomers and at a very early time invented the system of hours, minutes, and seconds that we still use. In the O.T. no divisions of the day are mentioned beyond morning, noon, and evening. The night was divided into three watches, afterwards increased to four. In the only passages in O.T. in which hour occurs (Dan. 3:6; 4:19, 33; 5:5), it denotes an indefinite length of time. In the N.T. period the use of the hour was well established. The hours of the day were counted from sunrise, the hours of the night from sunset, and they varied in length at different seasons of the year.

House. The ordinary dwelling-houses of the Jews were of brick, less often of stone, cemented with gypsum, and roofed in with wooden beams. They seldom exceeded two stories in height. The houses of the rich were built around a court. The roofs were invariably flat, and could in many cases be reached by an outside staircase, guarded by a balustrade to prevent accidents (Deut. 22:8). Upon the roof an upper chamber was often built, which served as a parlor or as a place for taking the midday siesta (Judg. 3:23, 25). Windows were closed in with latticework, glass being an extremely costly material. The principal articles of furniture were the bed, consisting of a rug or mattress, rolled up during the day and spread when required on the floor or on a ledge by the wall, or in summer on the roof of the house; the lamp stand; and the table, with couches around it on which the guests reclined at full length. See also Furniture.

Hur. One who, with Aaron, supported the hands of Moses in the battle with Amalek (Ex. 17:10, 12; 24:14).

Husks. The pods of the carob tree (Luke 15:16). They are sweet to the taste and, steeped in water, make a pleasant drink, but they are chiefly used for feeding cattle and horses. The pods are sometimes called St. John's Bread, from the notion that they are the locusts on which the Baptist fed.

Hyksos. See Egypt.

Hymns. There are various references in the N.T. to the use of hymns; e.g., in the account of the Last Supper (Matt. 26:30), where the hymn would be part of the Hallel (Pss. 113–118; Acts 4:24; 16:25; 1 Cor. 14:15, 26; Eph. 5:19; Col. 3:16; James 5:13). Psalmody and hymnody were highly developed in the religious services of the Jews and were thus easily continued in Christian worship. The Gospel hymns, such as the Magnificat (Luke 1:46–55), the Benedictus (1:68–79), the Gloria in Excelsis (2:14), and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29–32) have from early times been used in public worship.

Hypocrite. The word generally denotes one who pretends to be religious when he is not (though it is sometimes used to mean simply a bad man, e.g., Job 8:13; 13:16; Isa. 9:17; 33:14). Hypocrisy was the besetting sin of the Pharisees, and was severely condemned by the Lord (Matt. 23:13–33; Mark 12:38–40; Luke 11:37–44; 20:46–47).

Hyssop. A kind of wild marjoram, used at the Passover (Ex. 12:22); for sprinkling purposes in the purification of lepers (Lev. 14:4, 51) and in the sacrifice of the red heifer (Num. 19:6; see also Ps. 51:7; 1 Kgs. 4:33). According to John (19:29), the sponge with the vinegar offered to our Lord on the cross was "put upon hyssop." Matthew and Mark do not mention the hyssop, but only the reed by which it was raised to Jesus' mouth.

Iconium. A town of Asia Minor, on the high tableland north of the Taurus mountains, on the borders between Phrygia and Lycaonia. It was visited by Paul on his first missionary journey (Acts 13:51—14:6, 19, 21); also probably on the second and third journeys (Acts 16:2; 18:23). His sufferings there were long remembered (2 Tim. 3:11).

Idol. There are some ten different Hebrew words so translated in the KJV, representing the various kinds of objects of worship among heathen nations. Idolatry generally meant nature worship in one form or another; e.g., in Egypt the chief objects of worship were the sun and other heavenly bodies, the Nile, and sacred animals, especially the bull. Ra, the sun god, was the active power in creation and giver of life. Among the nations of Canaan and W. Syria Baal was the sun god or source of life, and Ashtoreth was the corresponding female deity. In addition each nation had its own peculiar god to whom it ascribed its prosperity and misfortunes (e.g., see Chemosh; Molech). The idolatry into which the Israelites so often fell consisted either in making images that stood for Jehovah, e.g., the calves of Jeroboam (1 Kgs. 12:28); or in worshipping, in addition to Jehovah, one of the gods of the heathen nations around them (1 Kgs. 11:7, 33; 2 Kgs. 21:3–6; 23:10; Jer. 7:31; Ezek. 20:26–49), such idolatry being some form of nature worship, which encouraged as a rule immoral practices.

During the Captivity the temptation to idolatrous worship was overcome. After the Return, the besetting sin of the Jews seems to have been covetousness, "which is idolatry" (Col. 3:5; cf. Eph. 5:5; Philip. 3:19).

Idumea = Edom. Isa. 34:5–6; Ezek. 35:15; 36:5; Mark 3:8. Cf. D&C 1:36, in which Idumea is used to represent the world.

Immanuel. God with us. Also spelled Emmanuel. A name-title given in Isa. 7:14 and 8:8 as a sign of God's deliverance. Alluded to in Micah 5:2–3. Specifically identified by Matthew (1:18–25) as a prophecy of Jesus' birth into mortality. It signifies that Christ as God will be born into mortality of a virgin and will be among the people to save and redeem them. This prophecy received its fulfillment in Christ. The name appears in latter-day revelation in 2 Ne. 17:14; 18:8; D&C 128:22.

Incense. The preparation of incense is described in Ex. 30:34–36; the duty of offering it twice daily fell upon the high priest (Ex. 30:7–8), but in the second temple the privilege was extended to all the priests, and the lot was cast each day to decide who should offer (Luke 1:9). Live coals were brought from the brazen altar of burnt offering, and placed on the golden altar of incense; then the priest to whom the lot had fallen entered alone into the Holy Place, carrying in a censer the incense, which he cast on the fire. Then, bowing reverently toward the Holy of Holies, he returned to the congregation, who were praying outside, and pronounced the blessing in Num. 6:24–26. The choir of Levites at once started to sing the daily psalms. On the Day of Atonement there was a special offering of incense. See Rev. 5:8; 8:3–4; cf. Ps. 141:2; Mal. 1:11. See also Fasts.

Incontinency. Lack of self-control (1 Cor. 7:5; cf. 2 Tim. 3:3).

Inheritance. Laws on this subject were well considered and well defined, their main object being to prevent estates passing from one family to another. The owners in any one generation had only limited rights. They could let on lease till the next year of Jubilee, but in that year all leases were to terminate, and all land and houses, except in walled towns, were to revert to the family of the original holder. When a man died, his eldest son took a double portion, i.e., twice as much as any other son (Deut. 21:17). (See Firstborn.) In later times a man was allowed to dispose of his property by will in any way he liked; but a will that expressly disinherited any son was invalid. Unmarried daughters, on the death of their father, were entitled to maintenance until married, at their brothers' expense. A widow kept her dowry and had the right to residence and maintenance in her late husband's house.

Isaac. He laugheth. The son born to Abraham and Sarah in their old age, the child of promise, and the heir of the promises (Gen. 15:1–6; 17:15–19; 18:9–15; 21:1–8). The main interest of his life gathers around his birth, the sacrifice on Mount Moriah (Gen. 22), his marriage (24; 25), and his dealings with his sons (27; 28). There are numerous references to him in various parts of the Bible (see especially Gal. 4:28; Heb. 11:9, 17, 20). In character he appears to have been a peace-loving shepherd, of great personal piety, full of affection for the members of his own family. In D&C 132:37 we are told that Isaac is now exalted and sits upon a throne with Abraham and Jacob. Cf. Matt. 8:11.

Isaiah. The Lord is salvation. Son of Amoz, a prophet in Jerusalem during 40 years, 740–701 B.C. He had great religious and political influence during the reign of Hezekiah, whose chief advisor he was. Tradition states that he was "sawn asunder" during the reign of Manasseh; for that reason he is often represented in art holding a saw.

Isaiah is the most quoted of all the prophets, being more frequently quoted by Jesus, Paul, Peter, and John (in his Revelation) than any other O.T. prophet. Likewise the Book of Mormon and the Doctrine and Covenants quote from Isaiah more than from any other prophet. The Lord told the Nephites that "great are the words of Isaiah," and that all things Isaiah spoke of the house of Israel and of the gentiles would be fulfilled (3 Ne. 23:1–3).

The writings of Isaiah deal with events of his day as well as events beyond his time, some of which have already come to pass and others are yet to be. The bulk of Isaiah's prophecies deal with the coming of the Redeemer, both in his first appearance ("For unto us a child is born," 9:6) and as the Great King at the last day, as the God of Israel. A major theme is that God requires righteousness of his people, and until they obey him they will be smitten and scattered by their enemies. But in the end, Israel will be restored; the barren land will be made fruitful and able to support a large population; and the Lord, the Holy One of Israel, will dwell in the midst of his people, who will be called Zion.

Some notable references are the following: Ch. 1, which is a prologue to the rest of the book; 7:14; 9:6–7; 11:1–5; 53:1–12; and 61:1–3, which foreshadow the mission of the Savior; chs. 2, 11, 12, and 35, which deal with events in the latter day, when the gospel is restored, Israel is gathered, and the thirsty land blossoms as the rose; ch. 29, an exposition of the coming forth of the Book of Mormon (cf. 2 Ne. 27); and chs. 40—46, which extol the superiority of Jehovah as the true God over the idol gods of the pagan worshippers. The remaining chs., 47—66, deal with events in the final restoration of Israel, the cleansing of the earth, and the establishment of Zion, with the Lord dwelling among his people.

A major difficulty in understanding the book of Isaiah is his extensive use of symbolism, as well as his prophetic foresight and literary style; these take many local themes (which begin in his own day) and extend them to a latter-day fulfillment or application. Consequently, some prophecies are probably fulfilled more than one time and/or have more than one application.

Some notable references to Isaiah in the N.T. are Luke 4:16–21; John 1:23; Acts 8:26–35; 1 Cor. 2:9; 15:54–56. When the angel Moroni came to Joseph Smith on September 21–22, 1823, he quoted Isa. 11 and said it was about to be fulfilled (JS-H 1:40).

The reader today has no greater written commentary and guide to understanding Isaiah than the Book of Mormon and the Doctrine and Covenants. As one understands these works better he will understand Isaiah better, and as one understands Isaiah better, he more fully comprehends the mission of the Savior, and the meaning of the covenant that was placed upon Abraham and his seed by which all the families of the earth would be blessed.

Ishmael. God heareth. Son of Abraham and Hagar the Egyptian (Gen. 16:11–16; 17:18–26). He was the child "born after the flesh" (Gal. 4:23) and not the child "by promise," and was sent from home on the birth of Isaac (21:8–21; see also 25:9–17; 28:9; 36:3). His descendants, the Ishmaelites, appear to have been a wandering race (16:12), living by plunder, having commercial relations and intermarrying with the heathen nations of Canaan (Gen. 37:25–28; 39:1; Judg. 8:24; Ps. 83:6; see also Gal. 4:21—5:1).

Isles. The word is frequently used to denote any lands washed by the sea, especially the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean (Gen. 10:5; Ps. 72:10; Isa. 20:6; 24:15; 66:19).

Israel. One who prevails with God or Let God prevail. This name was given to Jacob at Penuel (Gen. 32:28) and at Bethel (Gen. 35:10). It also applies to his descendants and to their kingdom (2 Sam. 1:24; 23:3). After the division of the kingdom, the northern tribes, as the larger part, retained the name Israel, while the southern kingdom was called Judah. The land of Canaan is also called Israel today. And in another sense Israel means the true believer in Christ, as explained by Paul (Rom. 10:1; 11:7; Gal. 6:16; Eph. 2:12). The name Israel is therefore variously used to denote (1) the man Jacob, (2) the literal descendants of Jacob, and (3) the true believers in Christ, regardless of their lineage or geographical location.

Israel, Kingdom of. The division of the house of Israel into two kingdoms at approximately 925 B.C. had been prophesied by Ahijah (1 Kgs. 11:31–35). The immediate cause was a revolt of the people against the heavy taxes levied by Solomon and his son Rehoboam. Ten tribes formed the northern kingdom, with headquarters at Shechem in Samaria. They were known as Israel, or the northern kingdom, or Ephraim, since Ephraim was the dominant group among them. Their first king was Jeroboam, an Ephraimite; he was followed later by such kings as Omri and Ahab (who ruled with his Phoenician wife Jezebel). The southern kingdom, consisting of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, was headquartered at Jerusalem.

The northern kingdom soon went into apostasy and adopted many practices of Baalism, notwithstanding the ministries of such great prophets as Elijah and Amos. After a history of over 200 years and a series of 19 kings, the kingdom was captured by the Assyrians and the people carried away captive into Assyria. They have therefore become known as the "lost ten tribes."

Since their captivity they have never yet returned to their homeland, but extensive promises and prophecies speak of the time when they of the "north countries" shall return when they are ready to obey the gospel. The gathering of the lost tribes is to be a more spectacular event than the children of Israel coming out of Egypt in Moses' day. Prophecies of their return are: Isa. 11:10–16; Jer. 3:18; 16:14–21; 1 Ne. 22:4–12; 2 Ne. 10:21–22; 3 Ne. 15:13–15; 16:1–5; D&C 133:26–35.

Issachar. Son of Jacob by Leah (Gen. 30:18; 35:23; 46:13; 49:14). After the settlement of Canaan, the tribe received some of the richest land of Palestine, including the eastern plain of Esdraelon, and had within its borders several places of note in Israelite history, such as Gilboa, Jezreel, and Tabor.

Italics. In the KJV italics identify words that are necessary in English to round out and complete the sense of a phrase, but were not present in the Hebrew or Greek text of the manuscript used. Such additions were necessary because in some instances the manuscript was inadequate, and the translators felt obliged to clarify it in the translation. In other instances italics were necessary in cases where the grammatical construction of English called for the use of words that were not needed to make the same thought in Hebrew or Greek. Italics thus represent the willingness of the translators to identify these areas. It appears that generally, though not always, their judgment was justified in their choice of italicized words.

Ithamar. Youngest son of Aaron. The high priesthood passed into his family in the person of Eli, but returned to the family of Eleazar, Ithamar's elder brother, in the person of Zadok (Ex. 6:23; 28:1; 38:21; Num. 3:4; 4:28, 33; 7:8; 1 Chr. 24:1–6; Ezra 8:2).

Jabesh. Dry. Or Jabesh-Gilead, a chief city of Gilead, east of the Jordan, connected with several important events of Israelite history (Judg. 21:8–14; 1 Sam. 11; 31:11–13; 2 Sam. 2:4–5; 21:12; 15:10–14). It was the men of Jabesh-Gilead who took Saul's body down from the walls of Beth-shan and buried it under an oak tree in Jabesh-Gilead (1 Chr. 10:11 ff.).

Jachin and Boaz. Pillars of Solomon's temple (1 Kgs. 7:21; 2 Chr. 3:17); the names denote "He will establish," and "In him is strength." The pillars, which stood on the south and north sides of the porch, were probably ornamental, and not intended to support any part of the weight of the building.

Jacob. Supplanter. (1) The younger of the twin sons of Isaac (Gen. 25:24 ff.). The two brothers were rivals from their birth, and Esau's descendants, the Edomites, were rivals of the Israelites (Gen. 25:23). The chief events of Jacob's life were the "purchase" of the birthright (25:29 ff.); the dream and vow (ch. 28); his long stay in the house of Laban (chs. 29—31); the return to Canaan, the reception at Penuel of the new name of Israel, and the reconciliation with Esau (chs. 32—33); his later life with his family at Shechem, Ephrath, and Mamre (Hebron) (chs. 33—37); his journey into Egypt, his death there, and his burial in the cave of Machpelah (chs. 45—50). It was through Jacob that the covenant of Abraham continued (Gen. 28:1–4, 12–22); it was then passed on to Joseph and Ephraim.

There has been much misunderstanding about Jacob, and even well-meaning students of the Bible criticize some of Jacob's dealings. The supposed deception of his father in obtaining the blessing (Gen. 27) cannot be taken at face value. The Lord is not obligated to bless an unworthy person simply because gracious words were pronounced upon him by mistake. The key to the matter is expressed in Gen. 27:33 wherein Isaac, after learning Jacob's true identity, said, "Yea, and he shall be blessed." Isaac could have revoked the blessing at that time, but he seemed to affirm that it had been rightly delivered. Jacob's subsequent life demonstrates that he deserved the blessing he received, while Esau's life shows disobedience and some displeasing choices of wives (Gen. 26:34–35; 28:8–9). The so-called purchase of the birthright from Esau may very well be equally justified by items of Esau's errant behavior that disqualified him, but which are not recorded in our Bible. We learn from latter-day revelation that Jacob "did none other things than that which [he was] commanded" and is today exalted upon a throne in heaven, in company with Abraham and Isaac (D&C 132:37). There are references to Jacob in Hosea 12:3–4, 12; Mal. 1–2; Matt. 8:11; 22:32; Rom. 9:13; Heb. 11:9, 20–21.

(2) Father of Joseph, husband of Mary (Matt. 1:15–16).

Jacob's Well. The scene of our Lord's conversation with the woman of Samaria (John 4:1–42); a well of the same name still exists, 75 feet deep, near Nablus, the ancient Shechem, close to the main road from Judaea to Galilee. Shechem was Jacob's home for some years after his return from Laban (Gen. 33:18; 37:12).

Jael. Wife of Heber the Kenite (see Kenites), an Arab chief in alliance with the Israelites. Sisera, Jabin's captain, after his defeat took refuge in Jael's tent and was killed by her either while he was drinking, as seems implied by Judg. 5:24–27, or while he lay asleep, according to the prose account in ch. 4.

Jairus. Ruler of a synagogue in some place near the western shore of Sea of Galilee (Mark 5:22; Luke 8:41). Jesus raised Jairus's 12-year-old daughter from death (Mark 5:35–43).

Jambres. See Jannes.

James. An English form of the Hebrew name Jacob. There are several persons of this name mentioned in the N.T. (1) Son of Zebedee, one of the Twelve, brother of John. His call is given in Matt. 4:21; Mark 1:19–20; and Luke 5:10. He was given the name Boanerges (Mark 3:17), and was one of the inner circle of three chosen to be with our Lord on certain special occasions: at the raising of the daughter of Jairus (Mark 5:37); at the Transfiguration (Matt. 17:1; Mark 9:2; Luke 9:28); and at Gethsemane (Matt. 26:37; Mark 14:33; see also Mark 10:30, 41; 13:3; Luke 8:51; 9:54). He was beheaded by Herod (Acts 12:2).

(2) Son of Alphaeus, also one of the Twelve (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13).

(3) Brother of the Lord (Gal. 1:19) and of Joses, Simon, Jude, and some sisters (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3; Jude 1:1); known as James the Just. He occupied an important position in the Church of Jerusalem (Acts 12:17; 15:13; 21:18; Gal. 2:9–12; 1 Cor. 15:7), and was probably the writer of the Epistle of James.

(4) James, called "the Less," son of Mary and brother of Joses (Matt. 27:56; Mark 15:40; Luke 24:10). Nothing further is known of him, unless he is, as some think, the same as number 2 (above).

James, Epistle of. The writer is generally thought of as the Lord's brother (Gal. 1:19), the son of Mary, and is mentioned in Acts 12:17; 15:13; Gal. 2:9. The epistle, which is addressed to the 12 tribes scattered abroad, was probably written from Jerusalem, but the date is not known. It may be one of the earlier epistles of the N.T. In the epistle are found some clearly stated items about practical religion, including the important advice of 1:5–6 that if one lacks wisdom, he should ask of God for help. This instructive passage inspired Joseph Smith to inquire of the Lord in 1820 as to the true church, and as a consequence the Father and the Son appeared to him and the dispensation of the fulness of times was launched (JS-H 1:9–20). Among other important teachings of James are those that have to do with faith and works (ch. 2); the need to control the unruly tongue (ch. 3); an exhortation to patience (ch. 5); calling the elders for a blessing when sick (ch. 5:14–16); and the desirability of being an instrument of conversion in the life of even one other person (5:19–20).

Jamnia; also Yavneh or Javneh. A place near Joppa where, about A.D. 90, a council of rabbis declared the O.T. canon to be completed. It is probable that the measure was partly defensive, precipitated by the increasing number of books being written by Christians. Traditionally, at this council the canon of the O.T. was decided upon which eventually became known as the Masoretic text. See also Canon; Masoretic Text.

Jannes and Jambres. Egyptian magicians who opposed Moses, mentioned by Paul (2 Tim. 3:8), but not referred to in the O.T.

Japheth. Eldest son of Noah (Moses 8:12; cf. Gen. 5:32; 6:10; 7:13; 9:18, 23); his blessing (Gen. 9:27). His descendants were dispersed over the European coasts of the Mediterranean and the districts adjoining the Black and Caspian seas (Gen. 10:1–5, 21; 1 Chr. 1:4–5), forming what is now called the Indo-European family of nations.

Jasher or Jashar. Upright. (Josh. 10:13; 2 Sam. 1:18.) An early collection of Jewish national songs and stories of deeds of valor, put together about the time of Solomon. Various other collections of the book of Jasher are available today and may be of some worth, but do not appear to be the one spoken of in the Bible.

Jason. (1) Appointed high priest by Antiochus Epiphanes, about 175 B.C.; he tried to introduce Greek customs, and established a gymnasium in Jerusalem (2 Macc. 4:7–26; 5:5–9). (2) The Thessalonian, a kinsman of Paul (Acts 17:5–9; Rom. 16:21).

Jasper. A precious stone, one of those in the high priest's breastplate (Ex. 28:20; 39:13); also in the walls of the "heavenly Jerusalem" (Rev. 21:19; see also Rev. 4:3). Jaspers were of various colors, most frequently green (cf. Rev. 21:11).

Javan. Son of Japheth; regarded as the founder of the Greek race (Gen. 10:2, 4; 1 Chr. 1:5, 7; Isa. 66:19; Ezek. 27:13; also Dan. 8:21; 10:20; 11:2; Zech. 9:13).

Jebus. Ancient name of Jerusalem (Judg. 19:10; 1 Chr. 11:4–5); it was a hill fortress, which maintained its independence until stormed by David (2 Sam. 5:6–9).

Jehoiachin. Jehovah shall establish. King of Judah (598 B.C.), also known as Jeconiah, Joachin, Coniah (2 Kgs. 24:6–15; 25:27; 2 Chr. 36:8–9; Jer. 52:31; Ezek. 1:2).

Jehoiada. Jehovah knows. The high priest who procured the overthrow of Queen Athaliah, and the establishment of Joash as king; as a mark of honor he was buried with the kings of Judah (2 Kgs. 11:4–17; 12:2, 7, 9; 2 Chr. 23:1–18; 24:2–25).

Jehoiakim. The Lord raiseth up. King of Judah (609–598 B.C.), originally called Eliakim (2 Kgs. 23:34–36; 24:1–6, 19; 1 Chr. 3:15–16; 2 Chr. 36:4–5, 8; Jer. 1:3; 22:18, 24; 26:1, 21–23; 27:1, 20; 28:4; 35:1; 36:1, 9, 28–32). Jehoiakim was son of Joash, king of Judah, and brother of Zedekiah. He was not a faithful ruler; an interesting event is told of him burning the manuscript of one of the prophecies of Jeremiah (Jer. 36:1–26), whereupon Jeremiah wrote the prophecy again. Jehoiakim was given a dishonorable burial of an ass (Jer. 22:18 ff.). He was succeeded by his son Jehoiachin, who in turn was succeeded by Zedekiah. See Chronological Tables.

Jehoram or Joram. (1) King of Judah, son of Jehoshaphat, married the daughter of Ahab (1 Kgs. 22:50; 2 Kgs. 8:16–29; 11:2; 12:18; 1 Chr. 3:11; 2 Chr. 21:1–16; 22:1, 6, 11). (2) King of Israel, son of Ahab (2 Kgs. 1:17; 3:1, 6; 8:16, 25, 29; 9:14–23, 29; 2 Chr. 22:5–7).

Jehoshabeath or Jehosheba. Half-sister of King Ahaziah, after whose death she concealed the infant Jehoash (son of King Ahaziah), from a murderous scheme by Athaliah, and so saved his life. She was the wife of Jehoiada the high priest (2 Kgs. 11:2; 2 Chr. 22:11).

Jehoshaphat. (1) King of Judah, in close alliance with kings of Israel, but still a true worshipper of Jehovah and a religious reformer; for a history of his reign see 1 Kgs. 15:24; 22; 2 Kgs. 1:17; 3:1–14; 8:16; 12:18; 1 Chr. 3:10; 2 Chr. 17:1–12; 18; 19:1–8; 20; 21:1, 2, 12; 22:9. (2) David's recorder, or keeper of the state chronicles (2 Sam. 8:16).

Jehoshaphat, Valley of. East of Jerusalem, between the city and the mount of Olives, referred to in Joel 3:2, 12.

Jehovah. The covenant or proper name of the God of Israel. It denotes the "Unchangeable One," "the eternal I AM" (Ex. 6:3; Ps. 83:18; Isa. 12:2; 26:4). The original pronunciation of this name has possibly been lost, as the Jews, in reading, never mentioned it, but substituted one of the other names of God, usually Adonai. Probably it was pronounced Jahveh, or Yahveh. In the KJV, the Jewish custom has been followed, and the name is generally denoted by LORD or GOD, printed in small capitals.

Jehovah is the premortal Jesus Christ and came to earth being born of Mary (see Mosiah 13:28; 15:1; 3 Ne. 15:1–5; D&C 110:1–10). Although Ex. 6:3 states that the God of Israel was not known by the name Jehovah before Moses' time, latter-day revelation tells us otherwise (Abr. 1:16; 2:8; cf. JST Ex. 6:3; see also Gen. 22:14).

Jehovah-jireh. The Lord will provide, or will see. The name given by Abraham to the place where he offered Isaac (Gen. 22:14). See Moriah.

Jehovah-nissi. The Lord is my banner. Name given by Moses to the altar erected after the victory at Rephidim (Ex. 17:15).

Jehovah-shalom. The Lord is peace. Name given by Gideon to altar he erected at Ophrah (Judg. 6:24).

Jehovah-shammah. Heb., translated the Lord is there. In English, the name of the New Jerusalem in Ezekiel's vision (Ezek. 48:35).

Jephthah. Judge of Israel; for his history see Judg. 11; 12. He is chiefly known for his rash vow, in consequence of which he offered his own daughter in sacrifice. He is commended in Heb. 11:32, probably because of his delivery of Israel from Ammon.

Jeremiah. Born of a priestly family in Anathoth, and prophesied from the 13th year of Josiah till after the downfall of Jerusalem, a period of over 40 years, 626–586 B.C. After Josiah's death he tried to stem, almost alone, the tide of idolatry and immorality, of self-deception founded on superficial reforms (3:4–5; 7:8–10), and of fanatical confidence in the Lord's protection, in which all classes were carried away. He had to face continuous opposition and insult from the priests (20:2), the mob (26:8–9), his townsmen at Anathoth (11:19), the frivolous and cruel (22:13; 36:23; 26:20), the king (36:19), and the army (38:4). After the fall of Jerusalem the Jews who escaped into Egypt took Jeremiah with them as a kind of fetish (43:6), and at last, according to tradition, stoned him to death. The circumstances under which his prophecies were written down are described in ch. 36. An arrangement of the chapters in chronological order is indicated below.

The prophet dwells much on the inwardness of the Lord's relation to the mind of his servants. External service is useless where there is no devotion of heart and life; superficial reforms were of no avail—a complete regeneration in the national life was required. He develops the idea of individual fellowship with the Lord (5:1, 7, 26–28; 9:1–6; 18); though the Jewish state falls, the Lord remains, and religion remains in the life of the individual.

The main divisions of the books are as follows:

1. Prophecies of reign of Josiah (626–608), chs. 1—6.

2. Prophecies under Jehoiakim (608–597), chs. 7—20.

3. Prophecies under Zedekiah (597–586), chs. 21—38, divisible into several groups. (a) Chs. 21—23, on pastors or rulers of the people, with promise of the king Messiah (23:1–6); ch. 24, on exiles carried away with Jehoiachin. (b) Chs. 26—29, on the false prophets, containing the prophet's letter to the exiles in Babylon, warning against the prophets there. (c) Chs. 30—33, prophecies of the latter-day restoration of Israel and the gospel covenant, containing story of the prophet's buying a field, showing the firmness of his faith in the people's restitution. (d) Chs. 34—38, narratives of the treatment of the prophet and other events during the last times of the siege.

4. Chs. 39—44, the prophet's history and other events after the fall of the city.

5. Chs. 46—51, prophecies against foreign nations. Chs. 50—51 in their present form are later than Jeremiah. Ch. 52 forms a historical conclusion.

Notable passages from Jeremiah include the following: 1:4–5, an acknowledgment of man's premortal existence, and Jeremiah's foreordination; 3:12–19, prophecy of the return of Israel from the scattered condition, gathering one of a city and two of a family to Zion, a pleasant land where Israel and Judah can dwell in safety and peace; 16:14–21, a prophecy of the Lord gathering Israel from the north countries by sending many fishers and hunters to find them. This event of the latter days will supersede in proportion even the bringing of Israel out of Egypt by Moses.

Some of Jeremiah's prophecies were contained in the brass plates of Laban secured by Nephi (1 Ne. 5:10–13). Jeremiah is also mentioned two other times in the Book of Mormon (1 Ne. 7:14; Hel. 8:20).

Jeremias or Jeremy. Matt. 16:14; 27:9; = Jeremiah. There was another Jeremy who lived near the time of Abraham, and who held the Melchizedek Priesthood. Nothing more is known of him today. D&C 84:9–10.

Jericho. A walled city in the valley of the Jordan, 800 feet below the Mediterranean, near the place where the Israelites crossed the river on their first entry into the promised land (Josh. 2:1–3; 3:16; 6). Joshua placed a curse upon it (Josh. 6:26), which was afterwards fulfilled (1 Kgs. 16:34). It was within the territory assigned to Benjamin (Josh. 18:12, 21), and was visited by our Lord on his last journey to Jerusalem (Mark 10:46; Luke 18:35; 19:1).

Jeroboam. (1) Son of Nebat (1 Kgs. 11:26—14:20); the first king of divided kingdom of Israel; a member of tribe of Ephraim, which led the revolt against the house of Judah and family of David. This revolt seems to have had the approval of the prophet Ahijah (11:29–40), but one of Jeroboam's first steps after the separation was to set up image worship in Dan and Bethel, the two calves being supposed to be images of Jehovah. This sin made his name proverbial (15:34), and called down on him the rebuke of the prophet Ahijah (14:6–16). He also made priests of men who were not of the family of Aaron (1 Kgs. 12:31; 2 Chr. 13:9); he instituted a new feast of his own, and also began the worship of wooden images or Asherah (1 Kgs. 14:15).

(2) Jeroboam II, of the dynasty of Jehu, the ablest of the kings of Israel, and the most successful in war (2 Kgs. 13:13; 14:16, 23, 27–29; 15:1, 8). Amos and Hosea prophesied during his reign, and denounced the idolatry, licentiousness, and oppression that prevailed throughout the kingdom.

Jerubbaal. He that striveth with Baal. The name given to Gideon after his destruction of the altar of Baal (Judg. 6:32; 7:1; 9; 1 Sam. 12:11).

Jerubbesheth. Also the name of Gideon (2 Sam. 11:21), formed from the preceding, just as Ishbosheth from Eshbaal, bosheth (= shame) being substituted for baal through unwillingness to pronounce the name of the heathen god.

Jerusalem. Formerly Salem (Gen. 14:18; Ps. 76:2), a Jebusite city until it was captured by David (2 Sam. 5:6 ff.); for its earlier history see Josh. 10:1 ff.; 15:8; 18:16, 28; Judg. 1:7–8; 19:10; 1 Sam. 17:54. It lay on the frontier line between Judah and Benjamin, and was chosen by David to be his capital. Until then it had been merely a mountain fortress, about 2600 feet above sea level, surrounded by deep valleys on all sides except the north. On the east was the Valley of the Kidron, dividing the Temple Mountain from the Mount of Olives; on the west and south was the Valley of Hinnom. The plateau on which the city stands was originally divided by another valley, called by Josephus the Tyropaean Valley, now in great part filled up with debris. (See map of Jerusalem in the Map Section.)

All authorities agree in placing the temple on the eastern hill, but there has been much dispute as to the position of Zion. (See Zion.) David fortified the city, the chief feature in the fortifications being a tower called the Millo. It may have protected the city on the north, the only side on which it had not the defense of precipitous ravines. During David's reign the city was little more than a fortress, the king occupying a wooden palace, and the ark still dwelling "in curtains." During the reign of Solomon much was done toward beautifying the city, the chief buildings erected being the temple (see Temple of Solomon) and the king's palace, to which was given the name of "the house of the forest of Lebanon."

After the division of the kingdoms Jerusalem remained the capital of Judah. It was frequently attacked by invading armies (1 Kgs. 14:25; 2 Kgs. 14:13; 16:5; 18; 19; 24:10; 25). Under Hezekiah it was made the one center of religious worship, and the "high places" were abolished. After the return it was gradually rebuilt (Ezra 1; 3; 5; Neh. 3; 4; see also Temple of Zerubbabel), but was captured and partly destroyed by Ptolemy I in 320 B.C., and by Antiochus Epiphanes in 168 B.C. The city grew under the Maccabees, and during the reign of John Hyrcanus the fortress, known in later days as the Castle Antonia, was rebuilt on the temple area. It was again captured in 65 B.C. by Pompey, who forced an entrance on the Sabbath. Herod rebuilt the walls and the temple, beautifying the city at great expense, but in A.D. 70 it was entirely destroyed by the Romans under Titus. During these later years of its history the Holy City was regarded with intense affection by all Jews, and the words of one of the Psalms of the captivity, "If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right hand forget her cunning," express a feeling that has outlasted twenty-five centuries of trial and eighteen continuous centuries of alienation. Cf. Ps. 122. See also Jebus; Salem.

Jeshua. The Lord saveth. A late form of the name Jehoshua, or Joshua.

Jesse. Father of David, and therefore ancestor of all the kings of Judah and also of Christ (Ruth 4:17, 22; 1 Chr. 2:5–12; Matt. 1:5–6). He is repeatedly mentioned in connection with the early history of David (1 Sam. 16:17; see also Isa. 11:1, 10). We are not told the name of Jesse's wife.

Jesus. The Greek form of the name Joshua or Jeshua, God is help or Savior. Joshua son of Nun is so spoken of in Acts 7:45 and Heb. 4:8. It is also the name of a Roman Christian mentioned by Paul (Col. 4:11).

Jesus. The name given by Joseph to the Savior of the world at his circumcision (Matt. 1:25; Luke 2:21), in accordance with the direction of the angel Gabriel (Luke 1:31; cf. Matt. 1:21). The name was not an uncommon one among the Jews; see above. An outline of the chief events of his earthly life will be found in the Harmony printed under Gospels. A list of references bearing on the doctrine of his person is given under the heading Christ.

Jethro. Also called Jether and Reuel, a prince and priest of Midian who gave Moses a home after his flight from Egypt, and afterwards became his father-in-law (Ex. 3:1; 4:18; 18:1–12). It was from Jethro that Moses received the Melchizedek Priesthood (D&C 84:6–7). He also gave Moses some practical advice about administrative delegation of responsibility (Ex. 18:13–27).

Jew. The name indicated first of all a man of the kingdom of Judah, as distinguished from persons belonging to the northern kingdom of Israel. Its first chronological occurrence in the Bible is in 2 Kgs. 16:6, about 740 B.C. It has become customary to use the word Jew to refer to all the descendants of Jacob, but this is a mistake. It would be limited to those of the kingdom of Judah or, more especially today, those of the tribe of Judah and his associates. Thus all Jews are Israelites, but not all Israelites are Jews, because there are descendants of the other tribes of Israel also upon the earth. Cf. 2 Ne. 33:8.

Jezebel. A Phoenician princess, daughter of Ethbaal, king of Zidonians, and wife of Ahab, king of Israel (1 Kgs. 16:31). This marriage, more than any other single event, caused the downfall of the northern kingdom, as Jezebel introduced into Israel the worst forms of Phoenician worship in place of the worship of Jehovah (1 Kgs. 18:4, 13, 19; 19:1–2; see also 21:5–25; 2 Kgs. 9). In Rev. 2:20 the name is applied figuratively to a woman (or sect) causing great harm to the Church in Thyatira. See also Athaliah.

Jezreel. (1) = Plain of Esdraelon (Josh. 17:16; Judg. 6:33; 2 Sam. 2:9; 4:4; Hosea 1:5, 11; 2:22). (2) A city on a hill rising out of the plain, belonging to tribe of Issachar (Josh. 19:18). Ahab made it his capital (1 Kgs. 18:45–46; 21:1, 23; 2 Kgs. 8:29); after the fall of his house it ceased to be a place of much importance. (3) Symbolical name of the eldest son of the prophet Hosea (Hosea 1:4–5).

Joab. (1) Eldest son of Zeruiah, David's sister, and captain of David's army. He was closely associated with all the chief events of David's reign, and was generally faithful to his master. After David's death he was in favor of Adonijah's succession (1 Kgs. 2:28), and for that reason was put to death by Solomon (2:29–34). (2) Two others (1 Chr. 4:14; Ezra 2:6).

Joanna. (1) Son of Rhesa, and ancestor of Christ (Luke 3:27). (2) Wife of Chusa, steward to Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee; one of the women who followed Jesus (Luke 8:2–3; 24:10).

Joash. (1) Gideon's father (Judg. 6:11, 29–31; 7:14; 8:13, 29, 32). (2) A son of Ahab (1 Kgs. 22:26; 2 Chr. 18:25; 25:23). (3) King of Judah, and son of Ahaziah; placed on the throne by the high priest Jehoiada (2 Kgs. 11; 12; 14). (4) King of Israel, son of Jehoahaz (2 Kgs. 13; 14:1–16; 2 Chr. 25); one of the best of the kings of Israel; Elisha, Hosea, and Amos prophesied during his reign. (5) Four others (1 Chr. 4:22; 7:8; 12:3; 27:28).

Job, Book of. Narrates the afflictions that befell a righteous man, and discusses the moral problem such sufferings present. Job's "three friends" discuss with him the meaning of his sufferings; they give their interpretation, that they are a sign of God's anger and a punishment for sin; but this Job will not admit. Their suggestions wring from him "words without knowledge" (38:2), which he afterwards retracts (42:3); yet Job is declared by God to have spoken the thing that is right concerning the Divine government (42:7), in saying that there is a mystery in the incidence of suffering that only a fresh revelation can solve. Chs. 32—37 contain the speeches of Elihu, who is shocked at what he regards as impiety on the part of Job, and condemns him, though on different grounds from the "three friends." His main thesis is that God will "not pervert judgment." Job makes no reply to him. His own craving for light is satisfied by the vision of God, at length vouchsafed in answer to his appeals. "I have heard of thee by the hearing of the ear: but now mine eye seeth thee" (42:5).

The book of Job does not entirely answer the question as to why Job (or any human) might suffer pain and the loss of his goods. It does make it clear that affliction is not necessarily evidence that one has sinned. The book suggests that affliction, if not for punishment, may be for experience, discipline, and instruction (cf. D&C 122:1–9).

Job's assurance of the bodily resurrection and his testimony of the Redeemer (19:25–27; cf. 2 Ne. 9:4) are one of the high points of the book, equalled only by the revelation of the Lord to him in chs. 38—41. The human mind is such that it is essential for Job to have a correct knowledge of God and know that his own course of life was acceptable to God, or he would not have been able to endure the trials that came upon him. His unfailing faith is characterized by such exclamations as, "Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him" (13:15). Job is mentioned also in Ezek. 14:14; James 5:11; D&C 121:10.

Jochebed. Wife of Amram and mother of Moses and Aaron (Ex. 6:20; Num. 26:59). See also Ex. 2.

Joel. A prophet of Judah. The date of his prophecy is uncertain; it may have been spoken as early as the reign of Joash, before 850 B.C., or even so late as after the Return. The occasion of the prophecy was a severe visitation of drought and locusts. He assures the people that on repentance they will again receive the blessings of God. His prophecy of the outpouring of the Spirit (2:28–32) was quoted by Peter on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:17), and by the angel Moroni to Joseph Smith (JS-H 1:41). There are also traces of Joel in Revelation.

John the Baptist. Son of Zacharias and Elisabeth, being of priestly descent through both parents. This lineage was essential, since John was the embodiment of the law of Moses, designed to prepare the way for the Messiah and make ready a people to receive him. He was the outstanding bearer of the Aaronic Priesthood in all history, and was entrusted with its most noble mission.

His forthcoming birth and the nature of his ministry were announced to John's father by the angel Gabriel (Luke 1:5–25). He was a child of promise, with prophecies of his mission having been given by Isaiah (40:3) and Malachi (3:1; cf. 1 Ne. 10:7–10; 2 Ne. 31:4–8). He grew up in the desert until the time arrived for his ministry to prepare the way for the Savior.

The sign of the dove, as an emblem for the Holy Ghost, was a pre-appointed signal by which John knew he was to recognize that he had baptized the Son of God (see John 1:29–34). At the time of the baptism of Jesus, John saw the sign and heard the voice of the Father bearing record that Jesus was the Beloved Son, in whom the Father was well pleased (Matt. 3:13–17). He had preached and baptized for several months before he baptized the Savior, and continued to do so afterwards for several months (John 3:23–24).

At least two of those who were later to become members of the Twelve, John and Andrew, were disciples of John before they met Jesus (John 1:35–42). It is probable that others of the Twelve were also tutored by him (Acts 1:21–22). He watched, without feelings of jealousy, the waning of his own influence and the growth of the influence of Jesus (cf. John 3:25–26). He was shut up in prison by order of Herod, for criticizing Herod's unlawful marriage of Herodias (Mark 6:16–29).

While in prison, John sent two of his disciples to inquire of Jesus to reassure their faith. Many have thought this event reflected a lack of confidence in John's own mind. However, Jesus took the occasion to bear testimony of the great work John had done, emphasizing that he was unwavering and true (see Luke 7:24–28). Jesus also pointed out that John had fulfilled the prophecy of Malachi 3:1. Jesus praised John as a prophet, saying there is none who was greater (Matt. 11:7–11). This greatness consisted of his unique privileges and the quality of his work. He alone was entrusted with the mission of preparing the way and baptizing the Savior of the world. He "did no miracle" (John 10:41), but magnificently fulfilled his assignment in bearing testimony of Jesus Christ. Jesus characterized John as "a burning and a shining light" (John 5:35). After nearly a year in prison, John was beheaded at the instigation of Herodias (Matt. 14:3 ff.; Mark 6:17).

A vigorous preacher, John taught many principles and doctrines of the gospel, and filled his mission in every particular. Latter-day revelation confirms the biblical account and also makes known additional events in the ministry of John. We learn that he was "ordained by an angel," when he was 8 days of age, to overthrow the kingdom of the Jews and to prepare a people for the Lord. We learn also that he was baptized while yet in his childhood (D&C 84:27–28). On May 15, 1829, this same John came to Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery on the banks of the Susquehanna River near Harmony, Pennsylvania, and ordained these men to the Priesthood of Aaron (D&C 13; 27:7–8; JS-H 1:68–72). Thus his ministry has operated in three dispensations: he was the last of the prophets under the law of Moses, he was the first of the New Testament prophets, and he brought the Aaronic Priesthood to the dispensation of the fulness of times.

John. One of the Twelve; son of Zebedee and brother of James. In his early life he was a fisherman in fairly comfortable circumstances (Mark 1:20). We may assume he is the unnamed disciple of the Baptist mentioned in John 1:40. Later on he received a call to be a disciple of Jesus Christ (Matt. 4:21–22; Luke 5:1–11). He was one of the inner circle of three who were with the Lord at the raising of Jairus's daughter, at the Transfiguration, and in Gethsemane. In his own Gospel he refers to himself as "the disciple whom Jesus loved" (John 13:23; 19:26; 20:2; 21:7, 20), and that "other disciple" (John 20:2–8). From Jesus he received the name Boanerges, "a son of thunder" (Luke 9:54). Other incidents that reveal his character are recorded in Mark 9:38; 10:35–40. There are frequent references to him in the accounts of the crucifixion and resurrection (Luke 22:8; John 18:15; 19:26–27; 20:2; 21:2). In the Acts he appears but seldom (Acts 3:1, 11; 4:13; 8:14). Paul refers to his meeting with him in Jerusalem (Gal. 2:9). In Rev. 1:9 John tells of his banishment to Patmos.

John is mentioned frequently in latter-day revelation, as in 1 Ne. 14:18–27; 3 Ne. 28:6; Ether 4:16; D&C 7; 27:12; 61:14; 77:1–15; 88:141. These passages serve to confirm and to clarify the biblical record of John and also give us a hint as to his greatness and the importance of the work the Lord has given him to do on the earth, not only in the time of the N.T., but also in the last days. We especially have a clarification of John 21:20–23, ascertaining that John did not die, but has been allowed to remain on the earth as a ministering servant until the time of the Lord's second coming (3 Ne. 28:6; D&C 7).

John, Epistles of. In none of these three epistles does the writer mention himself by name; but tradition assigns them to John, while the similarity of the language of these epistles and that of the fourth Gospel is strongly marked.

The first epistle emphasizes that Jesus has come in the flesh, and shows its bearing on the life of men. It was probably written after the Gospel, for it assumes in the reader a knowledge of the facts that the Gospel records. It also contains warnings against the dangers that beset a true faith in the literal incarnation of Jesus even before the end of the first century, both from teachers who claimed an authority independent of our Lord's in the revelation of truth and from teachers who refused to acknowledge a real manifestation of the Godhead in human flesh.

The second epistle is closely connected with the first in the character of the false teaching it condemns (cf. verse 7 with 1 Jn. 4:2). The "elect lady" addressed in it is nameless. The writer of the letter styles himself the "Elder."

In the third epistle the Elder refers to Gaius, Diotrephes, and Demetrius, all of whom are otherwise unknown to history.

John, Gospel of. Written by John the Apostle. In 20:31 he tells us his object in writing is to testify (1) that Jesus is the Christ, i.e., the Messiah, and (2) that Jesus is the Son of God. The scenes from Jesus' life that he describes are carefully selected and arranged with this object in view. The record begins with a statement of Christ's status in the premortal existence: he was with God, he was God, and he was the creator of all things. Finally he was born in the flesh as the Only Begotten Son of the Father. John traces the course of Jesus' ministry, greatly emphasizing his divinity and his resurrection from the dead and citing miracles and sermons to develop his points. He clearly affirms that Jesus is the Son of God, attested to by miracles, by witnesses, by the prophets, and by Christ's own voice. John teaches by contrast, using such terms as light and darkness, truth and error, good and evil, God and the devil. Perhaps in no other record is the holiness of Jesus and the perfidy of the Jewish rulers so plainly declared.

This Gospel is supplementary to the other three. It deals mainly with the Judaean ministry, whereas the Synoptists write chiefly of the ministry in Galilee. Several items from this Gospel have been clarified by latter-day revelation, such as D&C 7 and D&C 88:141. See also Gospels; John.

John, Revelation of. See Revelation of John.

John Mark. See Mark.

Jona or Jonas. Father of Peter (John 1:42; 21:15–17).

Jonah. Of Gath-hepher in Zebulun. He lived under Jeroboam II, whose success in restoring the ancient boundaries of Israel he predicted (2 Kgs. 14:25). The present book of Jonah does not claim to be from the hand of the prophet; it describes an episode in his life, and is due to some later writer. The key to the book is to be found in 3:10—4:11, in the reasons the prophet gives for his flight and unwillingness to preach at Nineveh. The writer is opposing a narrowmindedness that would confine the love of God to a single nation. He shows that Jehovah reigns everywhere, over sea and land; even in the heathen world the minds of men are conscious of sin and prepared to admit the Godhood of Jehovah. The book is a beautiful poem, whether it paints the humanity of the heathen sailors; the mourning of the prophet over the decay of the grass of the field; or the divine tenderness in ministering to the prophet with his imperfect conceptions or in pitying the little children of Nineveh. The story of Jonah was referred to by our Lord on two occasions when he was asked for a sign from heaven. In each case he gave "the sign of the prophet Jonah," the event in that prophet's life being a foreshadowing of Jesus' own death and resurrection (Matt. 12:39–41; 16:4; Luke 11:29–30).

Jonathan. (1) Son of Gershom, a Levite who hired himself as a house-priest to Micah the Ephraimite (Judg. 17:7–13). Through him idolatrous worship was established in Dan (Judg. 18). (2) Son of Saul, and friend of David; frequently mentioned in 1 Sam. 13–23. His friendship for David, whom he might naturally have regarded as a rival, is one of the most unselfish incidents in O.T. history. He was killed, along with Saul, on Mount Gilboa. David's lamentation over them is among the most beautiful of Bible poems (2 Sam. 1). Jonathan's body was rescued from Beth-shan by the men of Jabesh-gilead. He left one son, Merib-baal, afterwards called Mephibosheth. (3) David's nephew (2 Sam. 21:21; 1 Chr. 20:7; 27:32). (4) Son of Abiathar (2 Sam. 15:27, 36; 17:17, 20). (5) Five others (2 Sam. 23:32; 1 Chr. 11:34; 27:25; Ezra 10:15; Jer. 37:15, 20).

Joppa. (modern Jaffa) A town on the southwest coast of Palestine, the nearest port to Jerusalem (called Japho in Josh. 19:46). It became a place of importance as a harbor in Solomon's reign (2 Chr. 2:16; see also Ezra 3:7; Jonah 1:3; 1 Macc. 14:5; Acts 9:36–43; 10:5 ff.; 11:5). In N.T. times it was the only town on the coast that was more Jewish than gentile.

Jordan River. The most important river of Palestine, formed by the union of several springs rising in Mount Hermon. It passes through the Huleh Valley (the waters of Merom), then descends to the Sea of Galilee, 682 feet below the level of the Mediterranean. Passing out at the southern end of the lake, the river makes its way through a deep and intensely hot valley, 66 miles in length, called the Arabah, and finally enters the Dead or Salt Sea, 1292 feet below sea level. The total length of the river is well over 100 miles. The breadth varies from 90 to 100 feet, and the depth from 3 to 12 feet.

The two most important events connected with this river are (1) the passage of the children of Israel (Josh. 3; 4); and (2) the baptism of our Lord (Matt. 3). It is not possible to fix the exact spot at which either of these events occurred. The Israelites may have crossed at the ford opposite Jericho, or more probably at a spot 16 miles further north. For the site of the baptism see Bethabara.

Joseph. Son of Rachel, Jacob's second wife (Gen. 30:22–24; 37:3). An extensive account of his life is given in Gen. 37–50. The story is especially instructive in showing the discipline of misfortune and also that the Lord rewards his obedient children according to their faithfulness. The story of Joseph is also an illustration of the way in which God works in history, preserving his people. Joseph's valor in resisting the allurements of Potiphar's wife is an unequaled example of faith, chastity, and personal purity. His protection was his faith, as illustrated by his words: "How then can I do this great wickedness, and sin against God" (Gen. 39:9). In the N.T. Joseph is mentioned only once (Heb. 11:21–22), as an example of faith.

Joseph obtained the birthright in Israel because he was worthy and because it was his natural right. When Reuben, the actual firstborn, lost the privilege by transgression (1 Chr. 5:1–2), Joseph, as the firstborn son of Jacob's second wife, was next in line for the blessing. Joseph was a visionary man, a dreamer and interpreter of dreams, "a man in whom the Spirit of God is" (Gen. 41:38).

Special blessings and prophecies on the head of Joseph and his posterity are found in Gen. 48:1–22; 49:1, 22–26; and Deut. 33:13–17. When Joseph died, in Egypt at age 110, he was embalmed; but, in keeping with his own previous request, he was kept from burial until Moses and the children of Israel took his bones to Canaan, to be buried near his father and other ancestors (Gen. 50:22–26; Ex. 13:19; Josh. 24:32).

Latter-day revelation confirms many of the biblical details about Joseph and adds other important facts (see 2 Ne. 3:4–22; 4:2; Alma 10:3; 46:23–27; JST Gen. 50). It is through latter-day revelation that the larger mission of the family of Joseph in the last days is illustrated.

The tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, Joseph's children, were among the ten tribes of the Northern Kingdom of Israel, and thus among the "lost tribes." Also, one portion of Joseph's descendants came to America about 600 B.C. and established two great peoples. The record of their doings is called the Book of Mormon. It has also been primarily Joseph's descendants whom the Lord has called upon first in these last days to carry the gospel to the nations of the earth, in compliance with the covenant God made with Abraham. See also Abraham, Covenant of; Ephraim; Patriarch.

Joseph. Son of Heli and husband of the virgin Mary. His descent could be traced from David by a double line (Matt. 1:1–16; Luke 3:23–38). He lived at Nazareth, and espoused Mary, the daughter of his uncle Jacob. It was shortly before the marriage that Mary received the visit from the angel Gabriel. The birth of the child, Jesus, was miraculous, his mother being his only earthly parent; but Joseph was naturally regarded in Nazareth as his father, and the holy child treated him as such (Luke 2:48, 51). It is probable that Joseph died before the crucifixion (and probably before our Lord's baptism), as otherwise Mary would hardly have been committed by our Lord to the keeping of John (John 19:26–27).

Joseph. Of Arimathaea (i.e. of Ramah, 1 Sam. 1:1); a "counsellor," i.e., member of the Sanhedrin, a rich and faithful Israelite who took no part in the condemnation of our Lord, and after the crucifixion buried His body (Matt. 27:57, 59; Mark 15:43–45; Luke 23:50; John 19:38).

Joseph. "Called Barsabbas," one of the two men chosen as fit to take the place of Judas in the apostolic company, and therefore a disciple of Jesus from his baptism till the ascension (Acts 1:21–26).

Joseph Smith Translation (JST). A revision or translation of the King James Version of the Bible begun by the Prophet Joseph Smith in June 1830. He was divinely commissioned to make the translation and regarded it as "a branch of his calling" as a prophet. Although the major portion of the work was completed by July 1833, he continued to make modifications while preparing a manuscript for the press until his death in 1844, and it is possible that some additional modifications would have been made had he lived to publish the entire work. Some parts of the translation were published during his lifetime.

The translation process was a learning experience for the Prophet, and several sections of the Doctrine and Covenants (and also other revelations that are not published in the Doctrine and Covenants) were received in direct consequence of the work (i.e., D&C 76; 77; 91). Also, specific instruction pertaining to the translation is given in D&C 37:1; 45:60–61; 76:15–18; 90:13; 94:10; 104:58; 124:89. The book of Moses and the 24th chapter of Matthew (JS-M), contained in the Pearl of Great Price, are actual excerpts from the JST. Many excerpts from the JST are also given as footnotes in the edition of the KJV that accompanies this dictionary. The JST to some extent assists in restoring the plain and precious things that have been lost from the Bible (see 1 Ne. 13 and 14).

Although not the official Bible of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the JST offers many interesting insights and is an invaluable aid to biblical interpretation and understanding. It is a most fruitful source of useful information for the student of the scriptures. It is likewise a witness for the divine calling and ministry of the Prophet Joseph Smith.

Joseph, Stick of. See Ephraim, Stick of.

Joses. A brother of our Lord (Matt. 13:55; 27:56; Mark 6:3; 15:40, 47).

Joshua. God is help. The name also occurs in the O.T. under the various forms Jehoshua, Hoshea, Jeshua, and Jesus; son of Nun, and successor of Moses; born in Egypt before the Exodus (Num. 14:26–31); fought with Amalek (Ex. 17:13–14); was Moses' minister (24:13; 32:17; 33:11); one of the 12 spies (Num. 13:8); appointed Moses' successor (27:18 f.; 34:17; cf. Deut. 1:38; 3:28; 31:3, 23; 34:9). The book of Joshua (see below) contains the history of his conquest of Palestine. He died at the age of 110, and was buried in his own city, Timnath-Serah. He is the highest type of the devout warrior.

Joshua, Book of. So called not because he is the author, but because he is the principal figure in it. It describes (1) the conquest of Canaan (chs. 1—12); (2) the allotment of the land among the tribes and Joshua's final exhortations (chs. 13—24).

(1) The story of the conquest falls into two sections of nearly equal length, but very dissimilar in the fulness and minuteness of the particulars they give; (a) chs. 1—6, description of the way in which the Jordan was crossed, the headquarters of Israel fixed at Gilgal, Jericho taken, and command of the passes to the higher plateau of western Canaan secured; (b) a condensed account of the victories of Israel over the inhabitants of this higher plateau, consisting of three parts, relating to the central, southern, and northern portions respectively. This narrative concludes with a general statement of the results of the conquest and a list of conquered cities.

(2) This section falls under three heads: (a) ch. 13, the assignment of the eastern territory to Reuben, Gad, and half Manasseh; (b) western territory to Judah (chs. 14—15), to children of Joseph (chs. 16—17), and to seven remaining tribes (chs. 18—19); (c) chs. 20—21, the arrangements about the cities of refuge and the provision for the Levites. The book concludes (chs. 22—24) with an account of the setting up of the altar by the trans-Jordanic tribes and Joshua's farewell address.

The book was regarded by the Jews as the first of the "former prophets," but it is more properly a continuation of the first Five Books.

Josiah. (1) King of Judah, 641–610 B.C. (see 2 Kgs. 22–24; 2 Chr. 34–35). While still young, he made, under the guidance of Hilkiah, a thorough religious reformation, which extended to the northern tribes. He restored the temple, destroyed idolatrous images and the high places, put down the idolatrous priests, and celebrated a great Passover (2 Kgs. 23:21–23). During this reformation a book of the law was found by Hilkiah (2 Kgs. 22:8 f.; 2 Chr. 34:15 f.). It made at once a great impression, and led to the centralizing of all sacrificial worship at Jerusalem and the abolition of local idolatrous sanctuaries or high places. Josiah became involved in the war between Assyria and Egypt, and, though Pharaoh-Neco disclaimed enmity, Josiah met him in battle at Megiddo and was defeated and slain (2 Chr. 35:20–25; see also 2 Kgs. 23:29–30; Jer. 22:10–12, 18; Zech. 12:11). (2) Son of Zephaniah (Zech. 6:10).

Jotham. (1) Gideon's youngest son, who related the parable of the trees choosing a king (Judg. 9:5 ff.). (2) King of Judah, 758–742 B.C. (2 Kgs. 15:5, 32–38; 2 Chr. 27; Isa. 1:1; 7:1; Hosea 1:1; Micah 1:1).

Jubilee, Year of. A name given to every fiftieth year. It got its name from the fact that the beginning of the year was announced by the blowing of a trumpet on the Day of Atonement. In it land that had changed hands, except in non-Levitical walled cities, reverted to the family to which it had belonged at the original settlement, and all bondmen of Israelitish birth were set free (Lev. 25:8–16, 23–55; 27:16–25). We have no record in the O.T. of the observance of any year of jubilee, but the prophets allude to it in various passages. See Sabbatical Year.

Juda. (1) Son of Joanna or Joanan (Luke 3:27). (2) Mentioned in our Lord's genealogy (Luke 3:30). (3) = Patriarch Judah (Matt. 2:6 and elsewhere in N.T.). (4) One of the Lord's "brethren" (Mark 6:3).

Judah. Fourth son of Jacob and Leah (Gen. 29:35; 37:26–27; 43:3, 8; 44:16; 49:8 ff.; Deut. 33:7). From these passages we see that he was a natural leader among the sons of Jacob, and the tribe descended from him took the lead after the settlement in Canaan, its chief rival being Ephraim.

Judah, Kingdom of. In the reign of Rehoboam the dominions of Solomon were broken up into two separate kingdoms, mainly in consequence of the jealousy between the tribes of Ephraim and Judah. The southern kingdom included the tribe of Judah and the greater part of Benjamin, and had Jerusalem as its capital. On the whole it remained more faithful to the worship of Jehovah than the northern kingdom; it was less exposed to attack from the north and east, and the supreme power remained in the hands of the family of David until the Exile. It consequently managed to exist for 135 years after the downfall of the more populous and more powerful kingdom of Israel. For an outline of the history and a list of the kings see Chronological Tables.

Judah, Stick of. A reference to the Bible as a record of the house of Judah (Ezek. 37:15–19). See also Ephraim, Stick of. In the last days, when the various branches of the house of Israel are gathered, their sacred records will also be gathered together. These scriptural records complement one another and form a unified testimony that Jesus is the Christ, the God of Israel and the God of the whole world. See also 2 Ne. 3; 29; JST Gen. 50:24–36.

Judas. (1) Maccabaeus (see Maccabees). (2) Iscariot, i.e., belonging to Kerioth (Josh. 15:25) in the tribe of Judah, one of "the twelve," and the only one who was not a Galilean. The passages in which he is mentioned are Matt. 10:4; 26:14; Mark 3:19; 14:10; Luke 6:16; 22:3; cf. John 6:71; 12:4; 13:2, 26; Acts 1:16, 25. (3) A brother of our Lord (Matt. 13:55); writer of the epistle of Jude (see also Brethren of the Lord). (4) "Not Iscariot," one of the 12, also called Judas (son or brother) of James (Luke 6:16; John 14:22; Acts 1:13); probably the same as Lebbaeus or Thaddaeus (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18). (5) Of Galilee, leader of a revolt against Roman rule "in the days of the taxing," i.e., of the census; regarded by many as the Messiah. He had a great following, but was defeated and slain (Acts 5:37). (6) Surnamed Barsabbas, a leading member of the Church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:22, 27, 32). (7) A man of Damascus with whom Paul lodged after his conversion (Acts 9:11).

Jude. One of the brethren of the Lord and probable author of the epistle of Jude.

Jude, Epistle of. The author is the brother of James, and one of the "brethren of the Lord." The epistle is addressed to certain people in danger, owing to the presence among them of professing Christians who were giving themselves up to the immorality of pagan worship and claiming to be above the moral law. Jude wishes to rouse his "beloved" to a sense of their danger, and also to help them through it by bidding them keep close to the "faith once committed to the saints." There are some striking resemblances between this epistle and 2 Peter. Some notable passages in Jude are v. 6, recounting the war in heaven and the expulsion of Lucifer and his angels during the "first estate" or premortal existence (cf. Abr. 3:26–28); v. 9, speaking of an otherwise unknown event involving Michael (Adam) and the devil contending over the body of Moses; and vv. 14–15, citing a prophecy of Enoch.

Judaea. The name given after the return from exile to the southern part of western Palestine. It extended further north than the old kingdom of Judah and included the southern part of Ephraim. Its chief divisions were the (1) Shephelah, or "lowland," to the west, on the Philistine frontier; (2) the "hill country," some 35 miles long, and from 14 to 17 miles in breadth, consisting of stony moorland, capable of little cultivation, but broken up by valleys in which the land is fairly fruitful; (3) the Jordan valley and the Dead Sea in the east, and (4) the Negeb, or Dry Land in the south. During the time of the Persian supremacy Judaea was part of the 5th satrapy of the Empire and was generally administered by a Jewish governor. In N.T. times, after the death of Herod the Great, Judaea fell to Archelaus. On his deposition it was added to the Roman province of Syria, and was administered by a procurator who generally lived at Caesarea.

Judges, The. This name was given to a period of history between Joshua and Saul, extending over some 200 years, and marked by disorder, idolatry, and foreign oppression. The judge was more than a civil officer. He was generally a military leader as well, and his right to lead rested on the fact that in the eyes of the people he was the strongest and best man for the purpose. Faith in God was always the secret of success; but as a rule the judge was more of a fighter than a preacher.

Judges, Book of. This book and Ruth contain all the Jewish history that has been preserved to us of the times between the death of Joshua and the birth of Samuel. Judges consists of three parts: (1) an introduction (1:1—3:6); (2) the history of the Twelve Judges, which falls into a succession of periods of rebellion against God, and the oppressions and deliverances by which they were followed (3:7—16:31); (3) two narratives, which specially show the tendency to idolatry and lawlessness (chs. 17—21). The history finds a fit conclusion in the words, "In those days there was no king in Israel: every man did that which was right in his own eyes."

The book was compiled long after the events it records; in 18:30 there is a reference to the captivity of the ten tribes. The compiler would have had available earlier writings that he worked into his book, e.g., the Song of Deborah, the parable of Jotham, and some of the utterances of Samson. There is much difficulty in deciding the chronology of the period, as the compiler generally gives his figures in round numbers. In some cases the influence of a judge only extended over part of the land, so that two judges might hold office at the same time. The following table will indicate roughly the succession of events during the period of the Twelve Judges:

Years

Oppression by Cushanrishathaim (3:8) 8

Rest under OTHNIEL (3:11) 40

Oppression by Eglon, king of Moab (3:14) 18

Rest under and after EHUD (3:30) 80

SHAMGAR overcomes the Philistines (3:31) —

Oppression by Jabin, king of Canaan (4:3) 20

Rest after DEBORAH and Barak's victory (5:31) 40

Midianite oppression (6:1) 7

Quietness under GIDEON (8:28) 40

ABIMELECH'S rule (9:22) 3

TOLA'S judgeship (10:2) 23

JAIR'S judgeship (10:3) 22

Oppression by the Ammonites and Philistines (10:8) 18

Judgeship of JEPHTHAH (12:7) 6

Judgeship of IBZAN (12:9) 7

Judgeship of ELON (12:11) 10

Judgeship of ABDON (12:13) 8

Philistine oppression (13:1) 40

Judgeship of SAMSON (15:20; 16:31) 20

The book of Judges helps us to understand the development of the house of Israel after the settlement in Canaan. During the period that the book covers, the Israelites formed a confederation of tribes rather than a compact nation. The tribes were united by their recognition of a common descent and still more by their common worship of Jehovah; but, except when the approach of a formidable enemy compelled them to act together, their unity seldom found practical expression and was often overborne by local jealousies. It was only in time of war that a single leader became indispensable and was invested by general consent with something of kingly authority. At the beginning of this period the Ark seems to have been at Bethel, while at its close it was at Shiloh (1 Sam. 4:3), but it is only mentioned expressly in Judg. 20:27. The worship of Jehovah was in no way restricted to the precincts of the sanctuary of the Ark. There were various local sanctuaries, sometimes in private hands, as in the case of Micah, sometimes common to a whole family or community, as in the case of Ophrah. Their furniture consisted of a sacred pillar (9:6), and an ephod or some sacred image (8:27). Much importance was attached to the presence of a duly qualified priest, familiar with the traditions of the priestly order (17:9–10). The lack of unity is vividly called to the reader's attention in the closing sentence of the book (Judg. 21:25): "In those days there was no king in Israel: every man did that which was right in his own eyes."

Judgment hall. So KJV sometimes translates the Latin word Praetorium. In John 18:28, 33; 19:9, it denotes Pilate's official residence in Jerusalem; in Acts 23:35 it denotes a part of the buildings erected by Herod in Caesarea. In Matt. 27:27 praetorium is translated "common hall" or "governor's house," i.e., Pilate's house; in Philip. 1:13 it is translated "palace" or "Caesar's court," i.e., the officers of the court before which Paul was tried.

Jupiter. The king of gods in the Roman mythology. Antiochus Epiphanes wished to dedicate to him the temple in Jerusalem (2 Macc. 6:2). The men of Lystra thought that Barnabas was Jupiter in human form (Acts 14:12–13; see also Acts 19:35).

Kadesh or Kadesh-barnea. Also called En-mishpat (Gen. 14:7) and "the water of Meribah" (Num. 20:13), a city in the southwest corner of Palestine, a well-watered and fruitful spot in the wilderness of Zin. Here Miriam died (Num. 20:1), and from here, two years after leaving Egypt, the 12 spies were sent to report upon the land of Canaan (Num. 13:26). On their return, a revolt broke out, and as a punishment the people were condemned by God to wander for 38 years.

Kenites. Probably a Midianite tribe, descended from Abraham by his wife Keturah. Moses' marriage with the daughter of Jethro, a prince and priest of Midian, was also a cause of the long-standing friendship between the Kenites and Israelites (Num. 24:21–22; Judg. 1:16; 4:11, 17; 5:24; 1 Sam. 15:6; 27:10; 30:29). The Rechabites were a sect or family belonging to this tribe (1 Chr. 2:55).

Kerioth. Cities. (1) A town in the south of Judah (Josh. 15:25); probably the birthplace of Judas the traitor.

Keturah. Incense. Wife of Abraham after Sarah's death (Gen. 25:1, 4; 1 Chr. 1:32–33); hence sprang various tribes, including the Midianites.

Kidron. The torrent bed between Jerusalem and the Mount of Olives (2 Sam. 15:23); also called Cedron (John 18:1).

Kine. Cows, cattle (Gen. 32:15; 41:2, 18, 26; Amos 4:1).

Kingdom of Heaven or Kingdom of God. These terms are used in various combinations and with varying meanings. Generally speaking, the kingdom of God on the earth is the Church. It is a preparation for the greater kingdom—the celestial or kingdom of heaven. This is the manner in which these terms are used in D&C 65. However, kingdom of heaven is sometimes used in scripture to mean the Church (as in Matt. 3:2; 4:17; 13; and 25:1–13), meaning that the true church on the earth is the path to heaven, and is the kingdom of heaven on earth.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is the kingdom of God on the earth, but is at the present limited to an ecclesiastical kingdom. During the millennial era, the kingdom of God will be both political and ecclesiastical (see Dan. 7:18, 22, 27; Rev. 11:15; JST Rev. 12:1–3, 7; D&C 65), and will have worldwide jurisdiction in political realms when the Lord has made "a full end of all nations" (D&C 87:6).

Kings, Books of. Regarded by the Jews as forming one book. The Greek version divided the book of Samuel and the book of Kings each into two parts, calling the four portions the four books of the Kings. The Latin and English versions have followed the division though not the names of the Greek version. The books of Kings narrate the history from the rebellion of Adonijah to the final captivity of Judah, including the whole history of the northern kingdom from the separation till its disappearance in 721 B.C. The succession of events will be found under Chronology. The books were compiled by some unknown writer from a variety of written documents, including the state chronicles.

Kirjath-arba. City of Arba. The old name of Hebron (Gen. 23:2; 35:27). In Gen. 35:27; Josh. 15:13; 21:11, KJV translates "city of Arba."

Kirjath-jearim. City of woods. A town on the boundary between Judah and Benjamin, 7½ miles northwest of Jerusalem (Josh. 9:17; 18:14–15); the Ark was here for 20 years (1 Sam. 6:21; 1 Chr. 13:5–6; 2 Chr. 1:4; 2 Sam. 6:2). It was also known as Kirjath-Baal or Baale-Judah, and Kirjath-arim.

Kishon. A torrent that carries water from the hills around Esdraelon to the Mediterranean. It is connected with two great events, the defeat of Sisera (Judg. 4:7, 13; 5:21; Ps. 83:9), and the destruction of the prophets of Baal by Elijah (1 Kgs. 18:40).

Knop. A bud, especially a rosebud; hence a knob or spherical ornament on the stem of the golden lampstand, and under the brim of the molten sea in the temple (Ex. 25:31; 1 Kgs. 7:24).

Knowledge. One of the attributes of God (Isa. 46:9–10; Acts 15:18; 2 Ne. 9:20). Knowledge of divine and spiritual things is absolutely essential for one's salvation; hence the gospel is to be taught to every soul. "How shall they believe in him of whom they have not heard?" (Rom. 10:14). Knowledge is not obtained all at once, even by revelation, but line upon line, precept upon precept (Isa. 28:9–10). The scriptures, and also living prophets, are given so that the people might have knowledge of things of God and "know how to worship, and know what you worship" (cf. D&C 93:19). Knowledge is one of the endowments of the Holy Ghost (John 14:26; 16:13; D&C 34:10; 121:26–33) and one of the gifts of the Spirit (1 Cor. 12:8; Moro. 10:10; D&C 46:18). Peter lists knowledge along with faith, patience, kindness, and virtue as necessary acquisitions for one who would seek for a divine nature (2 Pet. 1:3–9). Since no one can be saved in ignorance of the gospel (D&C 131:6), and one progresses only as fast as he gains knowledge (HC 4:588), it follows that the person who gains knowledge will have "the advantage in the world to come" (D&C 130:18–19).

Other references showing the importance of gaining knowledge are Prov. 1:20–33; 3:13–26; 4:1–13; 8:1–36; 15:14; 24:3–4; John 17:3; Philip. 3:8; 2 Ne. 32:7.

Kohath. Second of the three sons of Levi, and grandfather of Moses and Aaron (Gen. 46:11; Ex. 6:16, 18). From him all priests were descended through Aaron, while those of his descendants who were not priests were known as Kohathites and were the Levites of highest rank (Num. 3:27, 30; 4:18, 34, 37; 10:21; 1 Chr. 6:61–70; 15:5).

Korah. (1) Son of Esau, and one of the dukes of Edom (Gen. 36:5). (2) A grandson of Esau (36:16). (3) Son of Hebron (1 Chr. 2:43). (4) Son of Izhar, grandson of Kohath, and great-grandson of Levi (Ex. 6:21, 24), the leader of the rebellion against Moses and Aaron (Num. 16; 26:9–11; Jude 1:11). His descendants, the Korahites, or Korathites, formed a guild of musicians (2 Chr. 20:19; titles of Ps. 42, Ps. 44–49, 84, 85, 87, 88), while others held the responsible post of doorkeeper (porter in KJV) of the temple (1 Chr. 9:17–19).

Kosher. From Heb. Kasher, meaning fit, proper, and/or ritually clean according to Jewish law. Especially applied to the preparation and serving of food according to the specifications given in the law of Moses (see Lev. 11).

Laban. Son of Bethuel, grandson of Nahor, grandnephew of Abraham, brother of Rebekah, and father of Leah and Rachel. His branch of the family remained at Haran when Abraham moved on into Canaan. The dealings between the two branches are described in Gen. 24; 27:43—31:55. Jacob lived with him and served him for 20 years. There was a good deal of mutual deception, each trying to outdo the other; but the final parting among the mountains of Gilead was a friendly one.

Lachish. A city of the Amorites, between Hebron and the coast (Josh. 10:3, 5, 23, 31–35; 12:11); afterwards included in Judah (15:39); fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chr. 11:9); here Amaziah was killed (2 Kgs. 14:19; 2 Chr. 25:27). It was captured by Sennacherib (2 Chr. 32:9; 2 Kgs. 18:17), and the siege is depicted on an Assyrian monument still in existence. After the Return Lachish was again occupied by Jews (Neh. 11:30).

Lamb of God. A name for the Savior used by John the Baptist and others (John 1:29). It has reference to Jesus being a sacrifice for the sins of mankind. Cf. 1 Cor. 5:7; 1 Pet. 1:19.

Lamech. (1) Fifth in descent from Cain (Gen. 4:18–24). (2) Father of Noah (Gen. 5:25–31; 1 Chr. 1:3; Luke 3:36; D&C 107:51; Moses 8:5–11).

Lamentations, Book of. Or, Dirges over the fall of Jerusalem and the nation. Written by Jeremiah. The poems are acrostic, chs. 1, 2, 4 having each 22 verses beginning with the successive letters of the alphabet; ch. 3 has 66 verses, every three beginning each with one letter; ch. 5 is not alphabetical. This beautiful little book is very instructive, e.g., in regard to the scenes in the city, and the feelings of the people, ch. 4; the deep impression made by the destruction of the holy city and temple by Jehovah's own hand (1:21; 2:1–11; 3:42–44); the feeling of sin awakened by it and the deep sense of national humiliation. The date of the book must be some years after the fall of the city, of which the writer was an eye-witness.

Lamp. In Palestine generally made in the form of a shallow saucer, filled with oil in which a wick floated, and having a small handle on one side by which it was carried.

Laodicea. A town in the Roman province of Asia, in the valley of the Lycus, near Colossae and Hierapolis. In Col. 4:16 there is a reference to a letter written by Paul to the Church in Laodicea. Other references to Laodicea are found in Col. 2:1; 4:13, 15; Rev. 1:11; 3:14. This last passage shows that the special danger of the church there was its lukewarmness.

Laver. A vessel containing water for the priests to wash their hands and feet before offering sacrifice. In the tabernacle it stood between the altar and the door (Ex. 30:17–21). In Solomon's temple, besides the molten sea, there were ten lavers on wheels, with bases (1 Kgs. 7:27–39), used for washing the animals that were to be sacrificed (2 Chr. 4:6).

Law of Moses. The name assigned to the whole collection of written laws given through Moses to the house of Israel, as a replacement of the higher law that they had failed to obey. The law of Moses consisted of many ceremonies, rituals, and symbols, to remind the people frequently of their duties and responsibilities. It included a law of carnal commandments and performances, added to the basic laws of the gospel. Faith, repentance, baptism in water, and remission of sins were part of the law, as were also the Ten Commandments. Although inferior to the fulness of the gospel, there were many provisions in the law of Moses of high ethical and moral value that were equal to the divine laws of any dispensation. The law of carnal commandments and much of the ceremonial law were fulfilled at the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The law functioned under the Aaronic Priesthood and was a preparatory gospel to bring its adherents to Christ. See JST Ex. 34:1–2; Rom. 3:20; Gal. 3:19, 24; Eph. 2:14–16; Heb. 7:11, 18–19; 9:7–14; 2 Ne. 25:24–30; Mosiah 12:27—13:32; 3 Ne. 9:17; 15:1–8; D&C 84:23–27.

One of the major questions the early Church in Palestine had to decide was about the obligation of Christians to the ceremonial law of Moses. The matter was partially solved by the conference held in Jerusalem, as recorded in Acts 15, and Gal. 2. The Jewish Christians in particular had difficulty giving up the ritual of the law of Moses. The Nephites, on the other hand, seemed to have had much less of a problem doing so (see 3 Ne. 15:1–5).

The law as given through Moses was a good law, although adapted to a lower spiritual capacity than is required for obedience to the gospel in its fulness. However, the Jewish leaders had added many unauthorized provisions, ceremonies, and prohibitions to the original law, until it became extremely burdensome. These innovations were known as the "traditions of the elders." By N.T. times among the Jews the law had become so altered it had lost much of its spiritual meaning almost to the point that the law was worshipped more than the Lord. It is this form of the law that is so harshly spoken against by Jesus and by Paul (see Matt. 15:1–9; Mark 7:1–13; Gal. 2:16–21). There is no evidence that the law of Moses had become as altered among the Nephites as among the Jews, and this may partially explain why the Nephites had less trouble in giving it up when the Savior came. See also Aaronic Priesthood; Commandments; John the Baptist.

Lawyer. In the N.T., equivalent to "scribe," i.e., one who was by profession a student and teacher of the law, including the written law of the Pentateuch, and also "the traditions of the elders" (Matt. 22:35; Luke 10:25; cf. Mark 12:28).

Laying on of hands. A procedure used from the earliest times in the manner of blessing, conferring the Holy Ghost, and ordaining to the priesthood. See Gen. 48:14, 17; Num. 27:18, 23; Deut. 34:9; Matt. 9:18; Mark 10:13, 16; Luke 4:40; Acts 6:6; 8:14–17; 9:12, 17; 13:3; 19:1–7; 28:8; 1 Tim. 4:14; 5:22; 2 Tim. 1:6; Heb. 6:2; James 5:14–16; Alma 6:1; Moro. 2; D&C 20:41, 58, 68, 70; 36:1–2; A of F 5. Such procedure is in accord with the revealed will of the Lord, and is not a mere formality. In latter-day revelation the laying on of hands is discussed by the Lord as follows: "I will lay my hand upon you by the hand of my servant Sidney Rigdon, and you shall receive my Spirit ..." (D&C 36:2).

The laying on of hands also formed part of the ritual of sacrifice under the law of Moses (Ex. 29:10, 15, 19; Lev. 1:4; 3:2, 8, 13; 4:4; 8:14).

Lazarus. Helped of God. (1) Of Bethany, brother of Martha and Mary (John 11:1–44; 12:1–2, 9–11); raised by Jesus from the dead. (2) Of the parable (Luke 16:19–25); the meaning of the name may have suggested its use here.

Leah. Weary. Eldest daughter of Laban. She became Jacob's wife through a trick of Laban's, who passed her off as his daughter Rachel; being veiled, the mistake was not discovered till after the marriage had taken place (Gen. 29). She became the mother of six sons and one daughter (Gen. 29:30–32; 30:17–21; see also 31:4, 14, 33; 33:1–2, 7; 35:23, 26; 49:31).

Leasing. A lie, falsehood, or deceitful act (Ps. 4:2; 5:6).

Leaven. Anything that in cooking produces fermentation, a lump of old dough being generally used. No leaven was allowed during the Passover feast (Ex. 12:15, 19; 13:7; Deut. 16:4), or in offerings made to God with fire (Ex. 29:2; Lev. 2:11; 7:12; Num. 6:15). It was probably forbidden because there was associated with it the idea of corruption. In the N.T. it was as a rule symbolical of sin (Matt. 16:6; Mark 8:15; Luke 12:1; 1 Cor. 5:7; Gal. 5:9); but in Matt. 13:33, it is compared to the inward growth and influence of the kingdom of heaven (church) upon the earth.

Lebanon. A long range of limestone hills in the extreme north of Palestine, rising to a height of eight or nine thousand feet. It is still a land of forests, though the groves of cedar trees have almost disappeared. Running parallel is the Anti-Libanus range, less lofty than Lebanon, but including Hermon (9400 feet).

Lees. Sediment, dregs, as in the wine-making process (Isa. 25:6; Jer. 48:11; Zeph. 1:12; cf. D&C 58:8).

Legion. The chief subdivision of the Roman army, containing about 6,000 infantry, with a contingent of cavalry.

Lehi. Jawbone. A place in Judah, near the Philistine border, the scene of one of Samson's exploits (Judg. 15:9).

Leper. Leprosy is a terrible form of skin disease, still common in dry climates, and highly contagious. Lepers were forbidden by the law to enter any walled city. If a stranger approached, the leper was obliged to cry "unclean." The disease was regarded as a living death, indicated by bare head, rent clothes, and covered lip. For the regulations concerning the treatment of lepers, see Lev. 13 and 14.

Leprosy. A disease sometimes found to be infectious and contagious, spoken of in the Bible. Many notables were at some time afflicted with it, including Moses (Ex. 4:6–7), his sister Miriam (Num. 12:10), Naaman (2 Kgs. 5), and King Uzziah (2 Chr. 26:19–21). In these cases leprosy was given as a sign, a warning, or a punishment. There were apparently several types of leprosy, and the word is used in the Bible to designate other sicknesses or diseases. For example, clothing and walls were said to be leprous when they had patches of mildew or some fungous growth, as in Lev. 13:47–59; 14:33–37. Instances of Jesus curing leprosy are recorded in Matt. 8:2–4; Mark 1:40–45; Luke 5:12–15; 17:11–15.

Let. To prevent, hinder, impede, or restrain (Isa. 43:13; Rom. 1:13; 2 Thes. 2:7; cf. Ex. 5:4). To allow or leave someone to do something (Matt. 8:22; 13:30; 27:49; Luke 9:60).

Levi. Joined. (1) Third son of Jacob by Leah (Gen. 29:34; 35:23); his sons (Gen. 46:11; Ex. 6:16, 19; Num. 3:17); his slaughter of the Shechemites (Gen. 34:25–30); Jacob's curse on (Gen. 49:5). See also Levites. (2) Son of Melchi (Luke 3:24). (3) Son of Simeon (Luke 3:29). (4) = Matthew (Mark 2:14; Luke 5:27, 29).

Leviathan. Any great sea or land monster, e.g., the crocodile, either as an actual creature (Job 41:1), or as symbolic of a nation (Ps. 74:14); a large serpent (Isa. 27:1).

Levirate Marriage. The custom of a widow marrying her deceased husband's brother or sometimes a near heir. The word has nothing to do with the name Levi or the biblical Levites, but is so called because of the Latin levir, meaning husband's brother, connected with the English suffix ate, thus constituting levirate. This system of marriage is designated in Deut. 25:5–10 (cf. Gen. 38:8), is spoken of in Matt. 22:23 ff.; it also forms a major aspect of the story of Ruth (Ruth 4:1–12).

Levites. Descendants of Levi. The work of ministering in the sanctuary was assigned to this tribe. The Levites are sometimes spoken of as distinct from the priests (1 Kgs. 8:4; Ezra 2:70; John 1:19); sometimes as though all Levites were also priests, "the priests, the Levites" (Deut. 18:1; Josh. 3:3). The work of the Levites was to assist the priests (Num. 3:5–10; 18:1–7). They acted as musicians (1 Chr. 6:16, 31; 15:16; Neh. 11:17, 22); slaughtered the sacrifices (2 Chr. 29:34; 35:11; Ezra 6:20); and generally assisted in the temple (Neh. 11:16, 19). The Levites were themselves offered as a wave-offering on behalf of the children of Israel (Num. 8:11–15); they thus became God's peculiar property, given to him in place of the firstborn (Num. 8:16). They were not consecrated, but cleansed for their office (Num. 8:7–16). They had no inheritance in Canaan (Num. 18:23–24); but they had the tithe (18:21), 48 cities (35:6), and a claim on the alms of the people at feast times (Deut. 12:18–19; 14:27, 29).

Leviticus. Contains the following: (1) The sacrificial ordinances (chs. 1—7): (a) the burnt offering (1:1–17); (b) the meat offering (2:1–16); (c) the peace offering (3:1–17); (d) the sin offering (4:1—5:13); (e) the guilt-offering (5:14—6:7); and (f) various sacrifices for the priests (6:8—7:38). (2) The ritual observed in the consecration of priests, together with an account of the deaths of Nadab and Abihu because they offered strange fire (chs. 8—10). (3) Laws relating to ceremonial uncleanness (chs. 13—15). (4) The ritual of the Day of Atonement (ch. 16). (5) The law of holiness (chs. 17—26), containing a systematic code of laws dealing with religious and social observances. Ch. 27 is supplementary, dealing with vows and the redemption of "devoted" things.

The book of Leviticus represents the priestly religious life of Israel. Its dominant thought is the presence of a holy God in the midst of a holy people dwelling in a holy land. Its object is to teach religious truth to the minds of men through the medium of a stately ritual, sacrifices representing the need of atonement and communion, the consecration of the priesthood teaching the need of the consecration of the life of every worshipper who would draw nigh to God, and the law of clean and unclean teaching that God requires the sanctification of the whole man, body as well as spirit.

Libertines. Freedmen. Probably descendants of Jewish prisoners taken to Rome after the capture of Jerusalem by Pompey, who had gained their freedom. They had a synagogue in Jerusalem and are mentioned among the opponents of Stephen (Acts 6:9).

Libya. The district west of Egypt and bordering on the Mediterranean; formerly called Put or Phut (Ezek. 30:5; 38:5; Acts 2:10).

Light of Christ. The phrase "light of Christ" does not appear in the Bible, although the principles that apply to it are frequently mentioned therein. The precise phrase is found in Alma 28:14, Moroni 7:18, and D&C 88:7. Biblical phrases that are sometimes synonymous to the term "light of Christ" are "spirit of the Lord" and "light of life" (see, for example, John 1:4; 8:12). The "spirit of the Lord," however, sometimes is used with reference to the Holy Ghost, and so must not be taken in every case as having reference to the light of Christ.

The light of Christ is just what the words imply: enlightenment, knowledge, and an uplifting, ennobling, persevering influence that comes upon mankind because of Jesus Christ. For instance, Christ is "the true light that lighteth every man that cometh into the world" (D&C 93:2; John 1:9). The light of Christ fills the "immensity of space" and is the means by which Christ is able to be "in all things, and is through all things, and is round about all things." It "giveth life to all things" and is "the law by which all things are governed." It is also "the light that quickeneth" man's understanding (see D&C 88:6–13, 41). In this manner, the light of Christ is related to man's conscience and tells him right from wrong (cf. Moro. 7:12–19).

The light of Christ should not be confused with the personage of the Holy Ghost, for the light of Christ is not a personage at all. Its influence is preliminary to and preparatory to one's receiving the Holy Ghost. The light of Christ will lead the honest soul who "hearkeneth to the voice" to find the true gospel and the true Church and thereby receive the Holy Ghost (see D&C 84:46–48). Additional references are Alma 19:6; 26:3; D&C 20:27.

Linus. A Christian at Rome, friend of Paul and Timothy (2 Tim. 4:21). Irenaeus and Eusebius speak of him as bishop of Rome, A.D. 68–80.

Lo-ammi. Not my people. A figurative name given by Hosea to his second son to denote God's rejection of Israel (Hosea 1:9).

Locusts. Large flying insects, moving in large numbers and destroying all vegetation. There are some ten different kinds, frequently referred to in the O.T. They were sometimes used for food (Lev. 11:21–22; Matt. 3:4), being cooked in various ways and having somewhat the taste of shrimp.

Lord. See Christ; Christ, Names of; Jehovah.

Lord of Hosts. Or Lord of Sabaoth. See Sabaoth.

Lord's Day. Occurs in the Bible only in Rev. 1:10. The first day of the week is meant, being the day of our Lord's resurrection and also the day on which the Holy Spirit came upon the apostles. References to its weekly observance are found in 1 Cor. 16:1–2; Acts 20:7; and in many early Christian writers. It was never confounded with the Sabbath, but carefully distinguished from it (e.g., Col. 2:16). The term is used also in D&C 59:9–13.

Lord's Prayer. So called because it was taught by our Lord to his disciples. Matthew (6:9–13) includes it in the Sermon on the Mount, while Luke (11:1–5) tells us that it was given by our Lord in answer to a request from one of his disciples. There are some small differences in the form in which the two disciples have recorded the prayer; these may be accounted for by supposing that they themselves did not always use exactly the same words in saying the prayer. A slightly different rendition is found in 3 Ne. 13:9–13; and further variations are to be seen in JST Matt. 6:9–15.

Lord's Supper. The last meal Jesus ate with the Twelve before his arrest and crucifixion (John 13:2–4; 21:20; 1 Cor. 11:20). See also Communion.

Lo-ruhamah. Uncompassioned. Symbolical name given by Hosea to his daughter (Hosea 1:6, 8).

Lost Books. The so-called lost books of the Bible are those documents that are mentioned in the Bible in such a way that it is evident they were considered authentic and valuable, but that are not found in the Bible today. Sometimes called missing scripture, they consist of at least the following: book of the Wars of the Lord (Num. 21:14); book of Jasher (Josh. 10:13; 2 Sam. 1:18); book of the acts of Solomon (1 Kgs. 11:41); book of Samuel the seer (1 Chr. 29:29); book of Gad the seer (1 Chr. 29:29); book of Nathan the prophet (1 Chr. 29:29; 2 Chr. 9:29); prophecy of Ahijah (2 Chr. 9:29); visions of Iddo the seer (2 Chr. 9:29; 12:15; 13:22); book of Shemaiah (2 Chr. 12:15); book of Jehu (2 Chr. 20:34); sayings of the seers (2 Chr. 33:19); an epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, earlier than our present 1 Corinthians (1 Cor. 5:9); possibly an earlier epistle to the Ephesians (Eph. 3:3); an epistle to the Church at Laodicea (Col. 4:16); and some prophecies of Enoch, known to Jude (Jude 1:14). To these rather clear references to inspired writings other than our current Bible may be added another list that has allusions to writings that may or may not be contained within our present text, but may perhaps be known by a different title; for example, the book of the covenant (Ex. 24:7), which may or may not be included in the current book of Exodus; the manner of the kingdom, written by Samuel (1 Sam. 10:25); the rest of the acts of Uzziah written by Isaiah (2 Chr. 26:22).

The foregoing items attest to the fact that our present Bible does not contain all of the word of the Lord that he gave to his people in former times, and remind us that the Bible, in its present form, is rather incomplete.

Matthew's reference to a prophecy that Jesus would be a Nazarene (2:23) is interesting when it is considered that our present O.T. seems to have no statement as such. There is a possibility, however, that Matthew alluded to Isaiah 11:1, which prophesies of the Messiah as a Branch from the root of Jesse, the father of David. The Hebrew word for branch in this case is netzer, the source word of Nazarene and Nazareth. Additional references to the Branch as the Savior and Messiah are found in Jer. 23:5; 33:15; Zech. 3:8; 6:12; these use a synonymous Hebrew word for branch, tzemakh.

The Book of Mormon makes reference to writings of O.T. times and connection that are not found in the Bible, the Book of Mormon, or in any other known source. These writings are of Zenock, Zenos, and Neum (1 Ne. 19:10; Alma 33:3–17). An extensive prophecy by Joseph in Egypt (which is not in the Bible) is also apparent from 2 Ne. 3:4–22, and a prophecy of Jacob (not found in the Bible) is given in Alma 46:24–26. These writings were evidently contained on the plates of brass spoken of in the Book of Mormon (1 Ne. 5:10–13).

Lot. A covering. Son of Haran, Abraham's brother (Gen. 11:27, 31; 12:4–5; 13:1, 5). He went with Abraham to Canaan; his life after his separation from Abraham is described in Gen. 13, 14, and 19. He was the ancestor of Moab and Ammon (Gen. 19:37–38; Deut. 2:9, 19). There are N.T. references to him in Luke 17:29; 2 Pet. 2:7. His wife's fate is also referred to in Gen. 19:26; Luke 17:32.

Lots, Casting of. There are many instances in scripture of the use of lots for the purpose of making a choice (e.g., Lev. 16:8; Num. 26:55; 33:54; 34:13; Josh. 7:16–18; 13:6; Judg. 20:9; 1 Sam. 10:20–21; 14:40–42; 1 Chr. 24:5, 31; 25:8; 26:13–14; Acts 1:26). Prov. 16:33 expresses a feeling on the subject of the Lord's hand in the matter.

Lucifer. Literally the Shining One; also Lightbringer or Son of the Morning. Lucifer is also known as Satan or the devil. The name Lucifer appears only once in the Bible (Isa. 14:12, but cf. Luke 10:18). Apparently Lucifer is the name of the devil before his rebellion and fall. Latter-day revelation clarifies the fall of Lucifer and equates him with Satan (D&C 76:25–38; cf. Rev. 12:1–17; 2 Ne. 9:8; D&C 29:36–38; Moses 4:1–4).

Luke. Mentioned three times in the N.T. (Col. 4:14; 2 Tim. 4:11; Philem. 1:24). He was also the writer of the third Gospel and of the Acts. In all passages in the latter book in which the first person plural is used (e.g., Acts 16:10), we can assume that Luke was Paul's fellow-traveler. He was born of gentile parents, and practiced medicine. He may have become a believer before our Lord's ascension, but there is no evidence of this. The identification of him with one of the disciples to whom our Lord appeared on the way to Emmaus is picturesque but historically unsupported. The first information about him is when he joined Paul at Troas (Acts 16:10); his medical knowledge would make him a welcome companion. He seems to have remained at Philippi for several years, as Paul found him there on his last journey to Jerusalem (20:6), and the two were together until their arrival in Rome. We learn from 2 Tim. 4:11 that Luke was with Paul during his second Roman imprisonment. It is uncertain when or where the Gospel was written; it was specially intended for gentile readers. (See Gospels.) The Acts was a continuation of the Gospel, and deals mainly with the growth of the gentile churches. History tells us nothing of Luke's later years, but tradition says he died a martyr. JST Luke 1:1 attributes to Luke a high calling as a "messenger of Jesus Christ."

Luke, Gospel of. See Luke; also Gospels.

Luz. Almond tree. (1) The scene of Jacob's dream, afterwards called Bethel (Gen. 28:19; 35:6; 48:3). (2) A city of the Hittites (Judg. 1:26), its position entirely unknown.

Lycaonia. A district of Asia Minor, where the cities of Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe are found (Acts 14:6). The "speech of Lycaonia" (14:11) was a dialect the people used, but they were also able to understand the Greek spoken by Paul and Barnabas.

Maccabees. A family of Jewish patriots. In 175 B.C. Antiochus Epiphanes became king of Syria and made a determined effort to stamp out the Jewish religion. At first he met with considerable success, owing partly to a Hellenizing movement among the Jews themselves, and altars were erected to Zeus in many parts of the Holy Land. Resistance began at Modin, a town near Beth-horon, where an aged priest named Mattathias, of the family of Hasmon or Chasmon, slew the sacrificers, and also the king's officer under whose direction the altar had been erected. Mattathias was the father of five sons (1 Macc. 2:15–28), and with a large body of followers took refuge among the mountains. They were attacked on the Sabbath, and thousands were slain. It was afterwards resolved to disregard the Sabbatical rule and, if necessary, to fight in self-defense. After Mattathias's death, his son Judas, surnamed Maccabaeus, or "the hammerer," became the leader. Several great victories were gained. The ruined temple was restored, the desecrated altar was pulled down and reconstructed, and the new altar was dedicated amid great rejoicing. In 165 B.C. a large Syrian army under Lysias invaded Palestine, the war continuing during several years with varying success. After the death of Judas in 161 B.C. his brothers Jonathan and Simon became the leaders. Jonathan was also high priest, but was treacherously murdered about 144 B.C. Simon was then sole leader of the patriotic party. Under him the country enjoyed greater prosperity than at any other period after the Exile (1 Macc. 14:4–15). The Jews, in gratitude for what he had done, put up in the temple a memorial tablet to Simon and his family, and he was appointed "governor and high priest for ever until there should arise a faithful prophet" (14:41). In 135 B.C. he was treacherously murdered by his son-in-law (16:11–24). His son, John Hyrcanus, then became high priest. He built the fortress in Jerusalem that was afterwards known as the Castle Antonia, and destroyed the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim. After his death the position of the family was less secure. The Herodian family were powerful rivals, and the marriage of Mariamne, a Maccabaean princess, with Herod the Great in 38 B.C. marks the end of the Maccabaean dynasty.

The first book of Maccabees (see Apocrypha) contains a history of events from 175 to 135 B.C., and was probably written about 100 B.C. It was written in Hebrew or Aramaic, but only a Greek translation has survived. It forms a historical document of the highest importance. The second book of Maccabees is an inferior work and less trustworthy, being an abridgment of a larger history by Jason of Cyrene (2:23). It deals with the years 175–160, and therefore goes over part of the period described in 1 Macc. It was written in Greek, probably by an Egyptian Jew.

Macedonia. The region that lay north of Achaia and south of what are now called the Balkan Mountains. It was the first part of Europe in which Paul preached the gospel (Acts 16:9–10), and contained many well-known places, such as Neapolis, Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea. Macedonia and Thessaly together constituted a Roman Province under the government of a proconsul, who lived at Thessalonica.

Machaerus. A fortress in Perea above the northeastern shore of the Dead Sea. It is not mentioned by name in the N.T., but Josephus (Ant. XVIII: 5:1–2) mentions it as the place where John the Baptist was imprisoned and beheaded, as in Matt. 14:10 ff. and Mark 6:17–28. Some ruins still remain at the site.

Machpelah. Doubling. The field and cave bought by Abraham (Gen. 23:9, 17), where were buried Sarah (23:19), Abraham (25:9), Isaac, Rebekah, and Leah (49:30–31), and Jacob (50:13). It was situated on the top of the hill on which Hebron was built. The traditional site is now occupied by a mosque.

Magdalene. The woman of Magdala (see Mary). Magdala was near Tiberias, on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee.

Magi. Called "wise men" (Matt. 2:1). Their identification is not made known in the scriptures, but it is certain that they were righteous men sent on an errand to witness the presence of the Son of God on the earth. Their spiritual capacity is evident: They were able to see the star when others could not; they knew its meaning, and brought gifts to the young child; and they were warned of God in a dream to return to their home by a safe route. Their knowledge was precise and accurate. It seems likely that they were representatives of a branch of the Lord's people somewhere from east of Palestine, who had come, led by the Spirit, to behold the Son of God, and who returned to their people to bear witness that the King Immanuel had indeed been born in the flesh. We are not told how many wise men there were, but tradition usually speaks of three, because of the three gifts of gold, myrrh, and frankincense. If they were serving in the capacity of witnesses, there would of necessity have been two or three. See also Wise Men of the East.

Magog. Covering. (1) Son of Japheth (Gen. 10:2; 1 Chr. 1:5). (2) A country or people near the Black Sea, and equivalent to Scythian (Ezek. 38:2; 39:6; Rev. 20:8). See also Gog.

Malachi. My messenger. The prophecy of Malachi was spoken about 430 B.C. The first part (1:1—2:9) is addressed to the priesthood, reproving them for their neglect of service to God. The second part (2:10—4:6) is addressed to the people, speaking against marriage outside the covenant, divorces from wives within the covenant, and neglect of tithe paying, and reproving the general spirit of discontent. The faithful are encouraged to remain so, with the assurance that the Lord is mindful of them, and the disobedient shall fail in the day of the Lord's coming. Notable passages are Mal. 3:1, which is quoted in Matt. 11:10 as having reference to John the Baptist; Mal. 3:7–12, an exposition of the law of tithing; Mal. 4:1, which speaks of the second coming of the Lord; and Mal. 4:5–6, which deals with the return of Elijah (cited also in D&C 2; 128:17; JS-H 1:37–39). All of Mal. 3 and 4 was quoted by the Savior to the Nephites, as recorded in 3 Ne. 24 and 25.

Mallows. Job 30:4. Probably seapurslane, a tall plant with sour leaves.

Mammon. An Aramaic word meaning riches, personified in Matt. 6:24; Luke 16:9, 11, 13.

Mamre. An Amorite in alliance with Abram (Gen. 14:13, 24); hence the name of the place where he lived near Hebron (13:18); afterwards a home of the patriarchs (18:1; 23:17, 19; 25:9; 35:27; 49:30; 50:13).

Manasseh. Forgetting. (1) Eldest son of Joseph (Gen. 41:51; 46:20; 48:1–20; 50:23; Deut. 33:13–17); also the name of the tribe descended from him; their territory west of the Jordan adjoined that of Ephraim. In addition, they had colonies east of the Jordan, in the rich pasture land of Bashan and Gilead. (2) King of Judah (2 Kgs. 20:21—21:18; 23:12, 26; 24:3; 2 Chr. 32:33—33:20, 23; Jer. 15). (3) Ezra 10:30. (4) 10:33.

Mandrake. The Hebrew name denotes love fruit. The fruit had a pleasant taste and odor, and was supposed to ensure conception (Gen. 30:14–16; Song. 7:13).

Manna. It is impossible to find any natural product that will answer to the requirements of the scriptural narrative in regard to this heavensent food. With regard to the name, we are told (Ex. 16:15) that the people, seeing the small scale-like substance, said one to another, "Man hu," "For they wist not what it was." This also translates "What is it?" See Ex. 16:31–35; Num. 11:7–9; Josh. 5:12; Heb. 9:4; John 6:31–32; 1 Cor. 10:3 ff.; Rev. 2:17.

Maran-atha. Our Lord cometh or Come, O Lord. Possibly an early Christian watchword (1 Cor. 16:22).

Mark. Also called John; son of Mary, who had a house of considerable size in Jerusalem (Acts 12:12); cousin (or nephew) of Barnabas (Col. 4:10); accompanied Paul and Barnabas from Jerusalem (Acts 12:25) and on their first missionary journey, deserting them at Perga (13:5, 13); accompanied Barnabas to Cyprus (15:37–39); with Paul at Rome (Col. 4:10; Philem. 1:24); with Peter at Babylon (i.e., probably at Rome) (1 Pet. 5:13); with Timothy at Ephesus (2 Tim. 4:11). His gospel (see Gospels) was possibly written under the direction of Peter. His object is to describe our Lord as the incarnate Son of God, living and acting among men. The Gospel contains a living picture of a living Man. Energy and humility are the characteristics of his portrait. It is full of descriptive touches that help us to realize the impression made upon the bystanders. Tradition states that after Peter's death, Mark visited Egypt, founded the Church of Alexandria, and died by martyrdom.

Mark, Gospel of. See Gospels; Mark.

Marriage. Among the Israelites, marriage was usually preceded by a formal act of betrothal, such a contract, when once entered on, being regarded as absolutely binding. On the marriage day, the bride was escorted to her husband's home by a procession consisting of her own companions and the "friends of the bridegroom," or "children of the bride-chamber," some carrying torches, and others myrtle branches and chaplets of flowers. When she reached the house, words such as "Take her according to the law of Moses and of Israel" were spoken, the pair were crowned with garlands, and a marriage deed was signed. After the prescribed washing of hands and benediction, the marriage supper was held. For a year after marriage a man was released from all military service. The gospel law of marriage is partially given in Matt. 19:4–9; Mark 10:2–12; Rom. 7:2; 1 Cor. 7. Its meaning, as symbolizing the union between Christ and the Church, is explained in Eph. 5:22–32.

Latter-day revelation tells us that marriage under the law of the gospel and the holy priesthood is for eternity, and that men and women thus sealed in marriage continue to have children throughout eternity. Although this concept of marriage is not fully presented in our present Bible, traces of it are found in Matt. 16:16–19; 19:3–8; 22:23–30; and Moses 4:18. However, the fullest explanation is found in D&C 132.

Martha. Sister of Lazarus and Mary (Luke 10:38–41; John 11:1–47; 12:2).

Martyr. From a Greek word meaning witness (Acts 22:20; Rev. 2:13; 17:6).

Mary. (1) Mother of Jesus. The virgin, cousin of Elisabeth (Luke 1:36); betrothed to Joseph (Matt. 1:18; Luke 1:27); the Annunciation (26–38); visits Elisabeth (40–45); the Magnificat (46–55); returns (56); Joseph warned not to put her away (Matt. 1:18–25); goes to Bethlehem with Joseph (Luke 2:4–5); the Nativity (7, 16); visit of the shepherds (16–20); the Purification (2:21–38); the Magi visit (Matt. 2:11); in Egypt (13–14); returns to Nazareth (19–23; Luke 2:39); goes up to the Passover (41–52); at the wedding at Cana (John 2:2–5). Other references during our Lord's ministry include Matt. 12:46; 13:54–55; Mark 3:21, 31; 6:3; Luke 8:19. She was entrusted to John (John 19:25–26), and was with the apostles after the ascension (Acts 1:14). There is no trustworthy history of her later years. Latter-day revelation confirms the biblical account and affirms that Mary was a pure and a chosen vessel, and the mother of the Son of God in the flesh (1 Ne. 11:13–20; Mosiah 3:8; Alma 7:10).

(2) Sister of Lazarus and Martha. Sat at Jesus' feet (Luke 10:39, 42); sent for Jesus after the death of Lazarus (John 11:1–45); anointed Jesus with ointment (John 12:3–8).

(3) [The mother] of James and Joses, at the cross (Matt. 27:56; Mark 15:40); called the wife of Cleophas (John 19:25); at the burial (Matt. 27:61); "the other Mary" (Mark 15:47); at the tomb in the morning (Matt. 28:1; Mark 16:1; Luke 24:10).

(4) Mother of Mark (Acts 12:12).

Mary Magdalene. I.e., Mary of Magdala, probably the place of that name on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. Out of her went seven devils (Luke 8:2). She was near the cross (Matt. 27:56; Mark 15:40; John 19:25); at the burial (Matt. 27:61; Mark 15:47); at the tomb in the morning (Matt. 28:1; Mark 16:1; Luke 24:10; John 20:1, 11). Jesus appeared to her (Mark 16:9; John 20:14–18).

Masoretic Text. From the Hebrew masora, meaning traditional. The traditional Hebrew text of the Old Testament was the result of the standardization and stabilization begun by the council of Jamnia, held about A.D. 90. See Jamnia. The O.T. of the KJV uses the Masoretic text.

Matthew. Gift of God. Known before his conversion as Levi, son of Alphaeus (Mark 2:14). He was a tax gatherer at Capernaum, probably in the service of Herod Antipas, in whose tetrarchy Capernaum was. Soon after his call he gave a feast to his old associates (Matt. 9:9–13; Mark 2:14–17; Luke 5:27–32) at which the Lord was present, and was in consequence blamed by the Pharisees. Matthew was probably a thorough Jew with a wide knowledge of the O.T. scriptures, and able to see in every detail of the Lord's life the fulfillment of prophecy. His Gospel (see Gospels) was written for the use of Jewish persons in Palestine, and uses many quotations from the O.T. His chief object is to show that Jesus is the Messiah of whom the prophets spoke. He also emphasizes that Jesus is the King and Judge of men. His Gospel was probably written in Aramaic, but is known to us by a Greek translation. Of the apostle's later life little is known for certain. A tradition asserts that he died a martyr's death.

Matthew, Gospel of. See Gospels; Matthew.

Matthias. Gift of Jehovah. The person chosen to fill the place of Judas (Acts 1:15–26). All that is known of him is that he was a disciple throughout the whole of our Lord's ministry (1:21–22); tradition states that he preached the gospel and suffered martyrdom in Ethiopia.

Mean. Obscure, humble, ordinary, not especially noteworthy (Prov. 22:29; Isa. 2:9; Acts 21:39).

Measures. See Weights and Measures.

Meat. Anything to eat; food; a meal (not necessarily flesh) (Gen. 1:29–30; Lev. 22:11, 13; 2 Sam. 13:5; Isa. 62:8; Ezek. 47:12; Heb. 3:17; Acts 16:34). In KJV meat is sometimes used to connote an offering made of grain, i.e., "meat offering," but no flesh is involved, as in Ex. 29:41; 30:9; Lev. 2:1–15. Cf. Alma 8:21–22.

Meat offering or more properly Meal offering. Heb. minchah, consisted chiefly of grain (or flour and cakes made from grain) and wine, seasoned with salt, and offered with incense. The Minchah could not be offered with a sin offering, but no burnt or peace offering was complete without it. Part was placed on the altar of burnt offering; the remainder was usually eaten by the priests in a holy place (Lev. 6:14–18, 23; Mal. 1:11). It was such an important part of the daily burnt offering that the term is sometimes used to denote the whole morning or evening sacrifice (e.g., 2 Kgs. 3:20).

Media. The country between the Caspian Sea and Elam, bounded by Mount Zagros on the west and Parthia on the east. It was at one time a tributary province of the Assyrian Empire, but shook off the yoke in the reign of Assurbanipal (666–624 B.C.), and the Median king Cyaxares joined with the Babylonian king Nabopolassar in the overthrow of Nineveh. Cyrus, by his defeat of Astyages (550 B.C.), gained possession of Media, which he united with the Persian kingdom.

Medicine. Medicine and surgery among the Israelites were of a very primitive kind, and until the introduction of Greek civilization they never rose to the rank of sciences. The only remedies mentioned in the O.T. are for external injuries, such as plasters, bandages, and unguents. Jeremiah speaks of a resinous gum ("balm of Gilead") noted for its healing properties (Jer. 8:22; 46:11). We also hear of figs being used as a poultice (Isa. 38:21).

Meet. Fitting, proper, qualified, suitable. Deut. 3:18; Matt. 3:8.

Megiddo. On the southwestern side of the plain of Esdraelon, and on the caravan route from Egypt to Damascus. Frequently mentioned in Israelite history. The scene of Sisera's defeat (Judg. 5:19). Fortified by Solomon (1 Kgs. 9:15). The place where Ahaziah died of his wounds (2 Kgs. 9:27). Also the scene of the tragic defeat and death of King Josiah (23:29–30; 2 Chr. 35:22; cf. Zech. 12:11, where the place is called "the valley of Megiddon"). See also Armageddon; Esdraelon.

Melchizedek. King of Righteousness. A notable prophet and leader who lived about 2000 B.C. He is called the king of Salem (Jerusalem), king of peace, and "priest of the most High God." Unfortunately, information concerning him in the Bible is relatively scarce, being limited to Gen. 14:18–20; Heb. 5:6; 7:1–3. Mention of the priesthood of Melchizedek is given in several other instances, primarily in Psalms and in Hebrews. However, latter-day revelation gives us much more about him and his priesthood (see JST Gen. 14:17–40; JST Heb. 7:1–3; Alma 13:14–19; D&C 84:14; 107:1–4). From these sources we realize something of the greatness of this prophet and the grandeur of his ministry. See also Jebus; Jerusalem; Melchizedek Priesthood.

Melchizedek Priesthood. The higher or greater priesthood, as compared with the lesser or Aaronic priesthood. The reason for the name is given in D&C 107:1–3. The Melchizedek Priesthood is mentioned in Ps. 110:4; Heb. 2:17–18; 3:1; 5:6, 10; 6:20; 7:11, 15, 17, 21; but the Bible does not give many particulars concerning the functions of that priesthood, except that Christ was a high priest after that order. From latter-day revelation we learn that within the Melchizedek Priesthood are the offices of elder, seventy, high priest, patriarch, and apostle (D&C 107), and that this priesthood must be present and functional whenever the kingdom of God is upon the earth in its fulness.

The Melchizedek Priesthood was first made known to Adam, and the patriarchs and prophets in every dispensation had this authority (D&C 84:6–17; Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith, pp. 180–81). When the children of Israel failed to live up to the privileges and covenants of the Melchizedek Priesthood, the Lord took away the higher law and gave them a lesser priesthood and a lesser law. These were called the Aaronic Priesthood and the law of Moses. The Aaronic Priesthood is not a different priesthood; rather, it is the lesser portion of the priesthood, dealing with the introductory ordinances and the preparatory commandments (D&C 84:18–28). When Jesus came, he restored the Melchizedek Priesthood to the Jews and began to build up the Church among them. However, it was lost again by apostasy, and was taken from the earth.

The Melchizedek Priesthood was restored to the earth in these last days by the ministry of Peter, James, and John, who literally came to Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery in the spring of 1829 and conferred this power and authority upon them (D&C 27:12–13). Later, Moses, Elias, and Elijah gave them further keys by which these brethren could use the Melchizedek Priesthood in additional ways (D&C 110). The president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is the president of the high or Melchizedek Priesthood, and by virtue of this position, he holds all the keys that pertain to the kingdom of God on the earth. This office or calling is held by only one man at a time, and he is the only person on the earth at that time in whom all the powers and keys of the Melchizedek Priesthood are functional. See also Aaronic Priesthood; Gospel; Law of Moses; Melchizedek.

Mene mene tekel upharsin. The inscription interpreted by Daniel (Dan. 5:25–28). It can be literally translated "numbered, numbered, weighed, and divisions." Possibly the words are names of weights, "a mina, a mina, a shekel, and a half." Daniel's skill showed itself in his giving to these words an interpretation bearing on the circumstances of the time. In the interpretation (v. 28) peres is found instead of upharsin. The u in upharsin is simply "and." Parsin (which is written pharsin when a vowel precedes) is the plural of peres (pronounced so as to rhyme with deface). Mene should be pronounced so as to rhyme with bewray, and tekel with bewail.

Mephibosheth. (1) Son of Saul and Rizpah (2 Sam. 21:8). (2) A lame son of Jonathan (2 Sam. 4:4); with Machir at Lodebar (9:6); David's kindness to him (9:5–13); Ziba's slander (16:1–4); his defense (19:24–28); David spares him (21:7). His true name was Merib-baal; but later Israelites were unwilling to pronounce the name Baal (cf. Ex. 23:13), and substituted for it "bosheth," i.e., "shameful thing."

Mercurius. Mercury, a Roman god, equivalent to Greek Hermes, the herald of the gods. Paul was so called by the men of Lycaonia because he was "chief speaker" (Acts 14:12).

Mercy seat. The golden covering of the Ark of the Covenant in the Holy of Holies. It was the place of the manifestation of God's glory and his meeting place with his people (Ex. 25:22; Lev. 16:2; Num. 7:89); and was regarded as the Throne of God (1 Sam. 4:4; cf. Ex. 30:6; Num. 7:89). Here the blood of the sin offering was sprinkled on the day of Atonement (Lev. 16:14–15). See Tabernacle.

Meribah. Contention. A name given (1) to Rephidim (Ex. 17:7); (2) to Kadesh (Num. 20:13, 24; 27:14; Deut. 32:51; 33:8; Ps. 81:7).

Merodach-baladan. King of Babylon in the days of Hezekiah (2 Kgs. 20:12, where he is called Berodach-baladan—Isa. 39:1; cf. 2 Chr. 32:31). He made an alliance with Hezekiah against Sargon, king of Assyria, who, after reducing Judah, Edom, and Moab to submission, deposed Merodach-baladan.

Mesha. (1) King of Moab, in the days of Ahab and his sons (2 Kgs. 3:4). See Moabite Stone. (2) 1 Chr. 2:42; (3) 8:9.

Mesopotamia. Heb. Aram-naharaim (see Ps. 60, title), i.e., Aram of the two rivers (Euphrates and Tigris), the name being specially applied to the fruitful country between the upper parts of these two rivers. In this region Nahor settled after leaving Ur of the Chaldees (Gen. 24:10); and here other members of the family remained after Abraham had moved on into Canaan. See Aram.

Messiah. An Aramaic word meaning the anointed. It occurs only in Dan. 9:25–26 and John 1:41; 4:25 (Messias). Used as the title of an office, it denotes the King and Deliverer whose coming the Jews were eagerly expecting. In the N.T. the deliverer is called the Christ, which is the Greek equivalent of Messiah, and Jesus the Messiah is called Jesus the Christ, Jesus Christ, or Christ Jesus.

Throughout the Apocrypha there is no reference to the hope of the Messiah, though during the century before the birth of Christ the hope was steadily reviving. But many Jews, as we learn from the Gospels, were looking only for a deliverer from the Roman power and for greater national prosperity; so when the Messiah came, the nation as a whole rejected him. Only the faithful were able to see in Jesus of Nazareth the true Suffering Servant of Isa. 53, as well as the true Prophet, Priest, and King of Israel (Matt. 16:16; Luke 24:21, 26, 27; John 4:25–26; Acts 3:18; 8:32–35; 17:3; 26:23).

Methuselah. Son of Enoch and the longest lived of the patriarchs (Gen. 5:21–27; Luke 3:37). Some details of his life and ministry are given in latter-day revelation, from which we learn that he was a righteous man, a prophet, and an astronomer, and was left on the earth when the city of Enoch was taken, to provide a posterity through which Noah would come. See D&C 107:50, 52, 53; Moses 8:1–3.

Micah. A native of Moresheth Gath, in the plain country of Judah, who prophesied under Hezekiah (Micah 3:12). The book of Micah has three divisions: (1) Chs. 1–3, prophecies of judgment and ruin on the Jewish State, lighting first on Samaria, and afterwards on Jerusalem, the crime being the idolatry at the high places and also the oppression by the upper classes. (2) Chs. 4–5, prophecies of restoration, with brilliant Messianic promises. Micah is the only book of the prophets to name Bethlehem as the place of the anticipated Messiah's birth. (3) Chs. 6–7, prophecies of a mixed character; the Lord remonstrates with his people, and recounts his past goodness to them; he requires from them justice, goodness, and humility. The last chapter contains a fresh picture of the state of society; and Zion, sitting in darkness, is comforted with the assurance that Jehovah pardons iniquity when men repent.

Michael. Who is like God. Mentioned in Dan. 10:13, 21; 12:1; Jude 1:9; Rev. 12:7. He is called the Archangel. Latter-day revelation informs us that Michael is Adam, the Ancient of Days (Dan. 7), a prince, and the patriarch of the human family (D&C 27:11; 107:53–56; 128:21). See also Adam.

Michal. Saul's 2nd daughter, wife of David (1 Sam. 14:49; 18:20, 27; 19:11–13, 17; 25:44; 2 Sam. 3:13–16; 6:16, 23). In 2 Sam. 21:8 the name occurs in mistake for Merab.

Midian. Judgment. Son of Abraham and Keturah (Gen. 25:2, 4; 1 Chr. 1:32–33).

Midianites. A powerful confederation of wandering Arab tribes, akin to the Hebrews, but often in conflict with them. They are referred to in Gen. 37:28, 36; Ex. 2:15; 3:1; 4:19; 18:1; Num. 22:4, 7; 25; 31; Judg. 6; 7; 8; Ps. 83:9, 11; Isa. 9:4; 10:26. See also Jethro.

Milcom. Their king. "The abomination of the Ammonites" (1 Kgs. 11:5); also called Molech.

Millstone. A mill consisted of two heavy flat circular stones, one resting on the other. The lower remained fixed. The upper one was rotated, by means of a handle, around a peg fastened into the lower stone, and passed through a funnel-shaped hole in the upper one. Grain was poured into this funnel and ground between the two stones, and flour came out at the circumference. Small mills were worked by hand; larger ones were turned by an ass (Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42).

Mines. Palestine has little mineral wealth, though Deut. 8:9 shows mining was to some extent carried on. There are some iron and coal mines in the Lebanon, while in the Sinai peninsula copper, iron, and manganese are found. The precious stones, to which there are many allusions in the O.T., were imported for the most part from southern Arabia.

Ministry. The work of the ministry is to do the work of the Lord on the earth—to represent the Lord among the people, preach the gospel, and administer the ordinances thereof. The chosen servants and appointed officers in the Church of Jesus Christ are put on earth by him to conduct the work necessary for the salvation of mankind. A minister "called of God, as was Aaron" (Heb. 5:4), and endowed with the holy priesthood, represents the Lord when he is performing his official duties, and is the Lord's agent. Therefore, what he does "according to the will of the Lord is the Lord's business" (D&C 64:29). The Lord has given apostles, prophets, evangelists, high priests, seventies, elders, bishops, priests, teachers, deacons, helps and governments "for the perfecting of the saints, for the work of the ministry, for the edifying of the body of Christ" (the Church), until all have reached the spiritual stature of Christ, the whole body being "fitly joined together" by that which every part supplieth. See Eph. 4:11–16; 1 Cor. 12:12–28; D&C 20; 107. Other references are Acts 11:30; 14:23; 15:6; 16:4; 20:17, 28; 21:18; Philip. 1:1; 1 Tim. 3:8–12; James 5:14.

Miracles. An important element in the work of Jesus Christ, being not only divine acts, but forming also a part of the divine teaching. Christianity is founded on the greatest of all miracles, the resurrection of our Lord. If that be admitted, other miracles cease to be improbable. Miracles should not be regarded as deviations from the ordinary course of nature so much as manifestations of divine or spiritual power. Some lower law was in each case superseded by the action of a higher. They were intended to be a proof to the Jews that Jesus was the Christ (Matt. 11:4–5; John 2:11; 10:25; 20:30–31). Many of them were also parabolic and instructive, teaching by means of symbols such divine truths as the result of sin and the cure of sin; the value of faith; the curse of impurity; and the law of love. The miracles of healing also show how the law of love is to deal with the actual facts of life. Miracles were and are a response to faith, and its best encouragement. They were never wrought without prayer, felt need, and faith.

It is important to notice the different names by which miracles are described. They are called signs, as being visible tokens of an invisible power; they are powers or mighty works, because they are the acts of One who is almighty; they are simply works, or the natural results of the Messiah's presence among men; they are wonders, marvels, because of the effect produced on those who saw them. The following miracles are found in one Gospel only:

Matthew. (1) The curing of two blind men (9:27–31); (2) the casting out of a devil from the dumb man (9:32–34); (3) the stater in the fish's mouth (17:24–27).

Mark. (1) The healing of a deaf and dumb man (7:31–37); (2) the restoration of the sight of the blind man at Bethsaida (8:22–26).

Luke. (1) The draught of fishes (5:4–11); (2) the raising of the widow's son (7:11–16); (3) the healing of the woman with a spirit of infirmity (13:11–17); (4) the healing of the man afflicted with dropsy (14:1–6); (5) the cleansing of the ten lepers (17:12–19); (6) the healing of Malchus (22:50–51).

John. (1) Water made wine (2:1–11); (2) the healing of the nobleman's son (4:46–54); (3) the healing of the impotent man at Bethesda (5:1–16); (4) the restoration of sight to the man blind from birth (ch. 9); (5) the raising of Lazarus (11:1–45); (6) the net full of fishes (21:1–24).

Miracles are a part of the gospel of Jesus Christ. If miracles cease it is because faith has ceased. See Mark 6:5–6; Morm. 9:10–20; Ether 12:12.

Miriam. Exalted. Sister of Moses (Num. 26:59); watches the ark of bulrushes (Ex. 2:4–8); leads the women with tabrets (Ex. 15:20–21); murmurs against Moses and is smitten with leprosy (Num. 12:1–15; Deut. 24:9); dies in Kadesh (Num. 20:1; Micah 6:4).

Mirrors. Among the ancients mirrors were almost always made of polished metal, either a mixture of copper and tin, or silver. They were round or oval, with an ornamental handle. See also Glass.

Missing Scripture. See Lost Books.

Mizpah or Mizpeh. Watchtower. (1) The heap of stones raised by Jacob and Laban (Gen. 31:49; Judg. 10:17; 11:11, 29, 34; 20:1, 3; 21:1, 5, 8); given to Gad (Josh. 18:26). (2) Mizpah of Moab, where David placed his parents (1 Sam. 22:3). (3) The land of Mizpah, where lived some Hivites (Josh. 11:3).

Mizraim. The Hebrew name for Egypt. Mizraim was the son of Ham, son of Noah (Gen. 10:6). He was the ancestor of the Hamitic people of lower Egypt and Africa, and of the Hamitic people of Canaan and several associated peoples (Gen. 10:13–20).

Moab. Son of Lot's eldest daughter (Gen. 19:37). The land of Moab lay east of the Dead Sea. The Moabites were akin to the Israelites, and spoke a language that closely resembled Hebrew, but there was constant warfare between the two nations (Num. 22–25; Judg. 3:12–30; 11:17; 2 Sam. 8:2; 2 Kgs. 3:6–27; 13:20; 24:2; 1 Chr. 18:2; 2 Chr. 20:1–25).

Moabite Stone. A block of basalt discovered in 1869 among the ruins of Dibon. It was broken up by Arabs who hoped to make profit out of the sale of the fragments; but fortunately a copy of the inscription had already been made by M. Clermont-Ganneau. So far as possible the pieces were collected and are now in the Museum of the Louvre at Paris. It was inscribed by Mesha, king of Moab, with a record of his exploits against Ahab, king of Israel, and was put up in the high-place at Dibon as a thank-offering to Chemosh, god of the Moabites. It describes how Chemosh was angry with his people, and the land was enslaved for 40 years; then he again led them to victory, and at his command Mesha smote the cities of Israel and offered the spoil to Chemosh. The language of the inscription is practically the Hebrew of the O.T. The date of the stone is about 890 B.C.

Molech, or Milcom. The abomination of the children of Ammon, a fire god, worshipped by passing children through or burning them in fire (Deut. 18:10; 2 Chr. 28:3). Molech worship was practiced by Solomon (1 Kgs. 11:5, 7); by the people of the Northern Kingdom (2 Kgs. 17:17); and by Ahaz and Manasseh (2 Kgs. 16:3; 21:6; cf. 2 Kgs. 23:10; Jer. 7:31; Ezek. 20:26, 31).

Money. The Hebrews appear to have been ignorant of coinage until the Persian period. Before that time gold and silver were used as a medium of exchange, but payments were made by weight. Hence the temptation arose to use false weights and false balances. Before the Exile sums of money were usually reckoned in shekels or talents. By a shekel we must always understand a shekel of silver, unless it is expressly stated to be of gold. In the Maccabaean period the weight of a shekel was 218 grains (15.126 grams); in earlier times it may have been lighter.

The only coin, properly so called, mentioned in O.T. is the gold dram, bearing the figure of a crowned king who is kneeling and is holding in his right hand a spear and in his left a bow.

Simon Maccabaeus coined silver shekels and half-shekels, as well as bronze money. The shekel had on one side the figure of a cup, with the inscription "Shekel of Israel," and on the other a branch with three buds, and the words "Jerusalem the Holy."

The following coins are mentioned in the N.T.:

1. The drachme (Luke 15:8–9), the ordinary silver Greek coin, and the didrachmon (or double drachme) (Matt. 17:24), translated half-shekel in some Bibles, or "tribute money" in KJV.

2. The stater (Matt. 17:27), originally of gold, but in N.T. times of silver, and equal to four drachmes. The pieces of silver mentioned in Matt. 26:15; 27:3, 5–6 were probably staters.

3. The lepton (or mite) (Mark 12:42; Luke 12:59; 21:2), the smallest bronze coin used by the Jews. Equaled one-half quadrans.

4. The Roman silver denarius. The KJV always translates this word as "penny."

5. The assarion (Matt. 10:29; Luke 12:6), or farthing; a bronze coin originally one-tenth, but in N.T. times one-sixteenth, of a denarius.

6. The kodrantes (Latin quadrans) (Matt. 5:26, where it is translated "farthing," and Mark 12:42, where it is translated "mites"); equaled one-fourth assarion.

The talent (Matt. 18:24; 25:15) and the mina (pounds) (Luke 19:13) are not coins, but sums of money.

Month. See Calendar.

Moriah. (1) The land of, the district where was found the mountain on which Isaac was offered in sacrifice (Gen. 22:2); probably the same district as that in which was the "plain (or oak) of Moreh." (2) Mount Moriah, the hill on which Solomon built the temple (2 Chr. 3:1); a tradition first recorded by the Jewish historian Josephus, who regards this as identical with (1).

Moses. Son of Amram (Ex. 6:16, 18, 20; 1 Chr. 6:1–3); family (1 Chr. 23:13–17; 26:24–25); birth, exposure, and adoption (Ex. 2:1–10; Acts 7:20–21; Heb. 11:23); refused to be called the son of Pharaoh's daughter (Heb. 11:24); flight into Midian (Ex. 2:10–20; Acts 7:24–29); marriage, birth of Gershom (Ex. 2:21–22; Acts 7:29); the bush, sent to Egypt (Ex. 3; Ps. 105:26; Acts 7:30–35); the three signs (Ex. 4:1–9, 21–23); Aaron his spokesman (Ex. 4:10–16); departs to Egypt (Ex. 4:19–20); circumcision of Gershom (Ex. 4:24–26); met by Aaron (Ex. 4:27–28); assembles Israel (Ex. 4:29–31); interview with Pharaoh (Ex. 5:1–5); reproached by the people (Ex. 5:20–21); his complaint to God (Ex. 5:22–23); further promise and charge (Ex. 6:1–9, 28–30; 7:1–9); the signs done (Ex. 7:10–11); the 10 plagues (Ex. 7:19—11:10; 12:29–30); pursuit, and passage of the Red Sea (Ex. 14; Acts 7:36); believed by the people (Ex. 14:31; Josh. 4:14); his song (Ex. 15:1–19); the people murmur against, at Marah (Ex. 15:24); at Sin (Ex. 16:2–3); at Rephidim (Ex. 17:2–3); on the return of the spies (Num. 14:2); on the rebellion of Korah (Num. 16:41); at Kadesh (Num. 20:2–3); when compassing Edom (Num. 21:5); sweetens the waters (Ex. 15:25); brings water out of the rock, at Horeb (Ex. 17:5–6); at Kadesh (Num. 20:7–11); brings quails, at Sin (Ex. 16:13); at Kibroth-hattaavah (Num. 11:31–34; Ps. 105:40); manna (Ex. 16:14–36; Num. 11:6–9; Deut. 8:3; Neh. 9:15; Ps. 78:24; 105:40; John 6:31–32); holds the rod while Joshua and Amalek fight (Ex. 17:9–12); goes up to God, the Law (Ex. 19; Heb. 12:21); returns, with the tables (Ex. 31:18; 32:7, 15–16); God will make of him a nation (Ex. 32:9–10; Num. 14:12); his intercessions (Ex. 32:11–13, 30–34; 34:8–9; Ps. 106:23); also at Taberah (Num. 11:2); on the return of the spies (Num. 14:13–19); on the rebellion of Korah (Num. 16:22); breaks the tables (Ex. 32:19); destroys the calf (Ex. 32:20); has the idolators slain (Ex. 32:25–29); a leader in God's stead (Ex. 33:1–3); speaks with God face to face in the tabernacle (Ex. 33:7–11); sees God's glory (Ex. 33:12–23); two new tables (JST Ex. 34:1–4, 27); with God another 40 days (Ex. 34:28); his face shines, the veil (Ex. 34:29–35; 2 Cor. 3:7, 13); rears the tabernacle (Ex. 40:17–38); consecrates Aaron and his sons (Lev. 8); the census (Num. 1); again, in the plains of Moab (Num. 26); sends the spies (Num. 13); rebellion of Korah (Num. 16; Ps. 106:16); sends to Edom (Num. 20:14); the brazen serpent (Num. 21:8–9; John 3:14); song at the well (Num. 21:17–18); views the land (Num. 27:12–14; Deut. 34:1–4); appoints Joshua (Num. 27:15–23); settles the 2½ tribes (Num. 32); "a prophet like unto him" (Deut. 18:15–19; Acts 3:22; 7:37; JS-H 1:40); Ebal and Gerizim (Deut. 27; 28); exhortations (Deut. 29–31); the elders gathered (Deut. 31:28); his song (Deut. 32); blesses the 12 tribes (Deut. 33); his death (Deut. 34:1–8); his greatness (Deut. 34:10–12); his meekness (Num. 12:3); his faithfulness (Num. 12:7; Heb. 3:2, 5).

As was the case with many of the ancient prophets, Moses' ministry extended beyond the limits of his own mortal lifetime. In company with Elijah, he came to the Mount of Transfiguration and bestowed keys of the priesthood upon Peter, James, and John (Matt. 17:3–4; Mark 9:4–9; Luke 9:30; D&C 63:21; HC 3:387). From this event, which occurred before the resurrection of Jesus, we understand that Moses was a translated being, and had not died as reported in Deut. 34 (Alma 45:19). It was necessary that he be translated, in order to have a body of flesh and bones at the time of the transfiguration, since the resurrection had not yet taken place. Had he been a spirit only, he could not have performed the work on the mount of giving the keys to the mortal Peter, James, and John (cf. D&C 129).

Moses came again to the earth on April 3, 1836, to the temple in Kirtland, Ohio, and conferred the keys of the gathering of Israel upon Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery (D&C 110), so that the keys of authority would once more be operative among men on the earth.

Latter-day revelation speaks much concerning Moses. He is mentioned frequently in the Book of Mormon, and from the D&C we learn concerning his ministry (D&C 84:20–26), and that he received the priesthood from his father-in-law, Jethro (D&C 84:6). The Lord has also given us the record of several visions of Moses, which greatly enlarges our knowledge of him (Moses 1). The book of Moses in the Pearl of Great Price also enriches our appreciation of its author.

Latter-day revelation concerning Moses confirms the biblical account of his greatness, his divine calling, and the events of his ministry, and reaffirms that he was the author of the five books that bear his name (1 Ne. 5:11; Moses 1:40–41). He is one of the greatest of men. For other references see Ps. 103:7; Isa. 63:12; Jer. 15:1; Mal. 4:4; Matt. 23:2; Luke 16:29, 31; John 1:17; 5:46; Acts 7:20–44; 1 Cor. 10:2; 2 Tim. 3:8; Heb. 11:23–29; Jude 1:9; Rev. 15:3; 1 Ne. 4:2; 17:23–30, 42; D&C 8:3; JS-M 1:55.

Moses, Law of. See Law of Moses.

Mule. Frequently mentioned in the Bible (e.g., 2 Sam. 18:9; Ezek. 27:14). During the monarchy the mule was the royal animal (1 Kgs. 1:33, 38, 44). Mules were not bred in Palestine; Solomon imported them (1 Kgs. 10:25; 2 Chr. 9:24).

Murder. Forbidden (Ex. 20:13; Lev. 24:17; Deut. 5:17; 21:9); punishment of (Gen. 9:6; Ex. 21:13–14; Num. 35:6, 22–30; Deut. 19:4–13; 27:25; Josh. 20:1–6); of an unknown person, directions concerning (Deut. 21:1–9). See also Matt. 5:21; 19:18; Rev. 22:15; D&C 42:18–19, 79.

Music. There are early references in the O.T. to the practice of music (e.g., Gen. 4:21; 31:27). For instances of its religious use see Ex. 15:20; 2 Sam. 6:5; 1 Chr. 15:16–28; 16:5–6, 42; 25:1–7; 2 Chr. 5:11–14; 7:6; 13:12–14; 20:28; 29:25–28; 30:21; 34:12; 35:15, 25; Neh. 12:35–36. For its secular use see Num. 10:2–9; Josh. 6:4, 8; Judg. 7:8–19; 11:34; 1 Sam. 18:6; Isa. 16:10; Jer. 48:33. The building of the temple gave an impetus to the study of music and led to the formation of a large choir for the proper performance of services (1 Chr. 15:16; 23:5–6; 25:1–6).

Little is known about the form or character of Hebrew music. Possibly the Jews were ignorant of the principles of harmony and of methods of forming harmonic chords. Their instrumental music would sound noisy and harsh to our ears. The Psalms were probably sung to simple melodies, and accompanied by instruments (2 Sam. 6:5). The chief stringed instruments in use were the harp, psaltery, viol, and ten-stringed lute. Wind instruments were the organ, pipe, trumpet, horn, and cornet. Besides these, there were percussion instruments, such as the timbrel or tabret, and cymbals.

The O.T. also mentions certain Babylonish instruments (Dan. 3:5), such as the cornet (or cow's horn), flute (a Pan's pipe or small organ), harp, sackbut (also a kind of harp), psaltery (or dulcimer), and the instrument that the KJV translates "dulcimer," a kind of bagpipe.

The N.T. mentions that angels sang at the birth of Jesus (Luke 2:13–14), and that Jesus and the Twelve sang a hymn after the Last Supper (Matt. 26:30). Latter-day revelation also confirms the spiritual value of good music. The Lord has said, "My soul delighteth in the song of the heart; yea, the song of the righteous is a prayer unto me, and it shall be answered with a blessing upon their heads" (D&C 25:12). He also specified that a selection of sacred hymns be made for use in the Church (D&C 25:11). See also Rev. 14:2–3; Mosiah 2:28; D&C 45:71; 66:11; 101:18; 109:39; 133:33; 136:28.

Mustard. In the N.T. the mustard mentioned is the common mustard (Sinapis nigra), which in Palestine will grow to the height of 10 feet or more. The birds that "lodge in the branches" (Matt. 13:31; Mark 4:32; Luke 13:19) frequent the plant for the sake of the seeds.

Myrrh. Used in the preparation of the holy ointment (Ex. 30:23); in the purification of women (Esth. 2:12); as a perfume (Ps. 45:8; Song. 1; 3; 4; 5); and for embalming (John 19:39). It was obtained from various thorny shrubs of the dry districts of Arabia and eastern Africa. In Gen. 37:25; 43:11, myrrh is the gum of the rock rose.

Mysia. A district forming the northern part of the Roman province of Asia. Paul, Silas, and Timothy were forbidden by the Spirit to preach in Asia (Acts 16:7–8); they turned toward Bithynia, which district also was forbidden to them; they then passed through Mysia, without preaching, and came to the coast at Troas.

Mystery. Denotes in the N.T. a spiritual truth that was once hidden but now is revealed, and that, without special revelation, would have remained unknown. It is generally used along with words denoting revelation or publication (e.g., Rom. 16:25–26; Eph. 1:9; 3:3–10; Col. 1:26; 4:3; 1 Tim. 3:16). The modern meaning of something incomprehensible forms no part of the significance of the word as it occurs in the N.T. See also Alma 12:9–11; 40:3; D&C 19:10; 42:61–65; 76:5–10. On the other hand, there is no spiritual gain in idle speculation about things the Lord has not revealed. See Deut. 29:29; Alma 37:11.

Naaman. Syrian noble cured of leprosy by Elisha (2 Kgs. 5; Luke 4:27). He came to Elisha at the suggestion of a little Hebrew maid, captured in war (2 Kgs. 5:2–3). He was ordered to bathe seven times in the Jordan, which, after some hesitation, he did, and was cured. He showed his gratitude by returning to Samaria, a distance of 30 miles, to thank Elisha. The prophet refused to accept any payment, and his servant Gehazi was punished for taking Naaman's present. Naaman took with him to Syria two mules' burden of earth (2 Kgs. 5:17), on which he intended to erect an altar to Jehovah. He did this because he believed that the God of Israel could only be worshipped on Israelitish soil.

Naboth. The Jezreelite, murdered by Ahab for his vineyard (1 Kgs. 21); avenged (2 Kgs. 9:21, 25–26).

Nadab. Liberal. (1) Eldest son of Aaron (Ex. 6:23; Num. 3:2); struck dead for offering "strange" fire, i.e., not taken from the altar (Lev. 10:1; Num. 3:4; 26:61; 1 Chr. 24:2). (2) 1 Chr. 2:28, 30. (3) 1 Chr. 8:30; 9:36. (4) King of Israel (1 Kgs. 14:20; 15:25, 31); killed by Baasha (15:27).

Nahor. (1) Father of Terah (Gen. 11:24; 1 Chr. 1:26; Luke 3:34). (2) Son of Terah and grandfather of Rebekah (Gen. 11:26–29; 22:20, 23; 24:10, 15, 24, 47; 29:5; 31:53; Josh. 24:2).

Nahum. Consoler. (1) The prophet; native of Elkosh in Galilee. He prophesied against Nineveh: ch. 1, the manifestation of the avenging God, executing judgment on the oppressors of his people; ch. 2, a picture of the city's fall; ch. 3, the city denounced as a harlot and enchantress. The prophecy has great literary beauty and much patriotic feeling. Nahum makes no allusion to the sin of his own people. The prophecy was probably written between the fall of Nineveh, 606 B.C., and that of No Amon (Nahum 3:8) or Thebes, in Upper Egypt, taken by Assurbanipal about 660 B.C. The occasion of the prophecy may have been some recent aggression of Assyria, or more probably some powerful coalition against Nineveh either that before which it actually fell, or an earlier one that prompted the prophet to express his certainty of the city's doom (2:1; 3:12). (2) Luke 3:25.

Nain. In the tribe of Issachar, on the northern slope of Mount Moreh, near Endor, and about 25 miles from Capernaum (Luke 7:11).

Names of persons. The numerous passages of holy scripture in which reasons are given for bestowing a particular name on any person show that the Hebrews attached great importance to the meanings of their names (cf. Gen. 17:5, 15, 19; 21:3, 6; 30). In the O.T. special reverence is paid to the name of God, as representing his person and character. In many cases a Hebrew personal name was composed of (1) one of the names or titles of God, (2) a verb or adjective, forming together a simple sentence, such as Azar-iah, the Lord hath helped. Two names of God are chiefly used in this way: (1) El, which is found as El-, Eli-, at the beginning of a word, or as -el, -eel, -iel at the end of it; and (2) Jah, which is found as Jo-, Jeho-, at the beginning, or as -iah, -jah, -ia at the end. (The three terminations -iah, -jah, -ia, should all be pronounced yah, one syllable, not two.) Thus, from the name Nathan (= He has given) are formed the four names Elnathan, Nathaniel, Jonathan, Nethaniah, all of which mean God or the Lord gives (or has given). The frequent use of "nathan," to give, "hanan," to graciously bestow, and other words of similar meaning, in composition with the names of God, throws light on the view taken by the Israelite as to God's providential care of the household.

The use of Baal as part of a name deserves notice. At one time this name could be applied to Jehovah himself (see Hosea 2:16); so it was not infrequently used as part of a Hebrew name, e.g., Baaliah. But when it became associated with idolatrous worship its use was given up, and names of which it formed part were frequently changed, bosheth (= shame, cf. Jer. 11:13; Hosea 9:10) being substituted for baal. Thus Eshbaal became Ishbosheth, and Jerubbaal became Jerubbesheth.

From the time the Jews came under Greek influences it was not at all unusual for a man to adopt a Greek name in addition to his Jewish one; e.g., Cephas and Peter both mean a rock, the one being Aramaic and the other Greek. Latin names were also freely adopted, e.g., Paulus, Lucanus, Silvanus, Justus, Niger, etc. We have no reference in the N.T. to the giving of a name at baptism, but such a custom arose out of the Jewish custom of giving a name at circumcision (in N.T. times, Luke 1:59; 2:21, there being no reference to it in the O.T. except in Gen. 17:5–12).

Naomi. Pleasant. Mother-in-law of Ruth (Ruth 1–4).

Naphtali. Wrestlings. Fifth son of Jacob, and second child of Bilhah, Rachel's slave (Gen. 30:8); his four sons (Gen. 46:24; Ex. 1:4; 1 Chr. 7:13); the blessing on the tribe (Gen. 49:21; Deut. 33:23); land of Naphtali (Josh. 19:32–39). Barak of Kedesh-Naphtali was the one man of note belonging to the tribe (Judg. 4:6; cf. 5:15–18). The history of the tribe ends with the captivity under Tiglath-pileser, but see Isa. 9:1; Ezek. 48:3–4, 34; Matt. 4:15; Rev. 7:6.

Nathan. He has given. (1) Son of David and Bathsheba (2 Sam. 5:14; 1 Chr. 3:5; 14:4; Zech. 12:12; Luke 3:31). (2) The prophet, forbids David to build a temple (2 Sam. 7; 1 Chr. 17:1–15); rebukes him about Bathsheba (2 Sam. 12; Ps. 51, title); anoints Solomon (1 Kgs. 1:38–39; see also 2 Chr. 9:29; 29:25; D&C 132:39).

Nathanael. God has given. His friendship with Philip and call to be a disciple are found in John 1:45–51; see also 21:2, where we learn that he belonged to Cana in Galilee. He is generally identified with Bartholomew, on the ground that Nathanael is always mentioned along with apostles, as though of apostolic rank, and that whereas the Synoptists (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:14) mention Bartholomew (associating him with Philip) and never Nathanael, John mentions Nathanael and never Bartholomew.

Nazarene. Belonging to Nazareth. Used of Jesus (Matt. 2:23). Christians were called the "sect of the Nazarenes" (Acts 24:5).

Nazareth. Early home of Jesus (Matt. 2:23; 4:13; Luke 1:26; 2:4, 39; 4:16). The village lies in a hollow among the hills of Galilee, just above the Plain of Esdraelon, and near several of the main roads of Palestine. It was in the synagogue at Nazareth that the Lord declared himself to be the fulfiller of the prophecy in Isa. 61:1–2. See Luke 4:16–30; cf. Mark 6:1; Matt. 13:54. After his rejection on that occasion the Lord does not appear ever to have visited the place again.

Nazarite. A consecrated man. A man under a vow to abstain from wine, from any cutting of the hair, and any contact with the dead (Judg. 13:5; 16:17; 1 Sam. 1:11; Amos 2:11, 12; for full regulations see Num. 6). The vow might be lifelong, or for a short, definite period.

Nebo. A group of hills west of Heshbon, in the land of Moab, afterwards the country of Reuben; they overlook the Jordan, with mounts Gerizim, Tabor, and Hermon in the far distance. Moses viewed the promised land here before his translation (Deut. 32:49; 34:1). Elevation: 2634 feet above sea level.

Nebo. Babylonian god of wisdom, being regarded as the son of Bel-Merodach, the patron god of Babylon (Isa. 46:1).

Nebuchadnezzar or Nabu-kudur-usur. Nebo, protect the crown! (or, the landmark). The great king of Babylon (604–561 B.C.), son of Nabopolassar, the founder of the empire (see Assyria); defeats Necho, king of Egypt, at Carchemish and drives the Egyptians from Syria (Jer. 46:2–12); subdues Judah (2 Kgs. 24:1); besieges Jerusalem (24:10–11), and takes it, carrying away the king and people (25:1, 8, 22; 1 Chr. 6:15; 2 Chr. 36; Ezra 1:7; 2:1; 5:12, 14; 6:5; Neh. 7:6; Esth. 2:6; Jer. 27:6, 8, 20; 28:3, 11, 14; 29:1, 3; 34:1; 39:5). For his relations with Daniel, by whom his dreams were interpreted, see Dan. 1–5. He was for a time smitten with madness, and on his recovery acknowledged God's power and goodness.

Necho. King of Egypt who conquered and slew Josiah at Megiddo (2 Kgs. 23:29), but was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 46:2; 2 Chr. 35:20, 22; 36:4); called Pharaoh-Necho (2 Kgs. 23:29–35; Jer. 46:2).

Negeb. Dry or parched land, also called "south country"; the district stretching southward from the hills of Judah toward the desert.

Nehemiah. Comfort of the Lord. (1) A Jew (either a Levite or of tribe of Judah) who held the important office of "cupbearer" at court of Artaxerxes, from whom he obtained a royal commission authorizing him to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem. The book of Nehemiah (which is a continuation of Ezra, the two being regarded by the Jews as forming one book) contains an account of the progress and difficulties of the work and its final completion. The book divides into four parts: (a) 1:1—7:73, Nehemiah's first visit to Jerusalem, and the rebuilding of the walls in spite of much opposition; (b) 7:73—10:39, religious and social reforms; (c) 11:1—13:3, lists of names, and account of the dedication of the wall; (d) 13:4–31, Nehemiah's second visit after 12 years' absence, and his further reforms. (2) Ezra 2:2 = Neh. 7:7. (3) Neh. 3:16.

Nergal-sharezer. Nergal protect the king! Accompanied Nebuchadnezzar to Jerusalem, holding the office of Rab-mag (i.e., chief of the magi) (Jer. 39:3, 13). He is probably to be identified with the man of the same name who afterwards became king of Babylonia and is known in classical literature as Neriglissar.

New Moon. The law appointed that at the new moon special sacrifices should be offered (Num. 10:10; see also 1 Sam. 20:5–6, 29; 2 Kgs. 4:23; Amos 8:5). The prophets often speak of "new moons" along with "Sabbaths." As the days for all Jewish feasts were reckoned by the moon, the exact time of the appearance of the new moon was of great importance. Watchers were placed on the hills around Jerusalem, and watchfires on the hilltops told the news to distant cities. It is said that the Samaritans, in order to cause confusion, lighted fires on their hills at wrong times.

New Testament. See Bible; Canon.

Nicodemus. A "ruler of the Jews," i.e., member of the Sanhedrin; comes to Jesus by night (John 3); defends him to the Pharisees (7:50); brings spices to his burial (19:39).

Nicolaitans. An Antinomian sect in Asia Minor that claimed license for sensual sin (Rev. 2:6, 15).

Nicolas. A proselyte of Antioch, one of the seven (Acts 6:5). See Proselytes.

Nile. Isa. 19:7–8; 23:3, 10; Jer. 46:7–8; Zech. 10:11. KJV has river(s), except in Isa., where it has brooks. The Nile was the sacred river of Egypt, frequently mentioned in the account of the Israelites' sojourn there. There being practically no rain in Egypt, the land on either bank is dependent upon the annual flood for water, and the failure of this always causes famine.

Nimrod. Son of Cush, grandson of Ham; the Babylonian hunter and traditional builder of Nineveh (Gen. 10:8–9; 1 Chr. 1:10). See also Micah 5:6, where Assyria is called "land of Nimrod."

Nineveh. Capital of Assyria on the eastern bank of the Tigris, its traditional founder being Nimrod, the great hunter (Gen. 10:11–12). For several centuries Calah outstripped it in importance, but under Sennacherib it again became the capital (2 Kgs. 19:36; Isa. 37:37). It was for more than 200 years a great commercial center, and also contained a large library of clay books. The city fell at the downfall of the Assyrian empire, 606 B.C. See Assyria. (2 Kgs. 19:36 = Isa. 37:37.) For prophecies concerning Nineveh, see Jonah 1:2; 3:2–7; 4:11; Nahum 1:1; 2:8; 3:7; Zeph. 2:13. Repentant Nineveh, a sign to the Jews (Matt. 12:41 = Luke 11:32). Its ruins have been carefully explored, and many important sculptures and inscriptions have been brought to light.

Nisan. Babylonian name of the first month (Neh. 2:1; Esth. 3:7); anciently called Abib. See Calendar.

Nisroch. An Assyrian god in whose temple at Nineveh Sennacherib was slain (2 Kgs. 19:37; Isa. 37:38); he was the moon-god, or the name may mean "one who hears."

No. I.e., Thebes. Capital of Upper Egypt, taken by Assurbanipal about 660 B.C. (Nahum 3:8).

Noah. Rest. The patriarch; son of Lamech (Gen. 5:29–32). When he was 10 years old, Noah was ordained to the priesthood by Methuselah (D&C 107:52). He became a preacher of righteousness and declared the gospel of Jesus Christ, even as Enoch, teaching faith, repentance, baptism, and the reception of the Holy Ghost (2 Pet. 2:5; Moses 8:19, 23–24). His life was sought by unbelievers, but he was preserved by the power of God (Moses 8:18, 26). He and his sons Japheth, Shem, and Ham, and their wives, making eight in all, were saved from the flood by the ark they had built at the command of God (Gen. 6–8; Heb. 11:7; 1 Pet. 3:20). We learn from latter-day revelation that Noah is also the angel Gabriel (HC 3:386).

The Lord's covenant with Noah affirmed that the earth would never be covered with a flood again (Gen. 9:1–17; cf. Moses 7:49–52). Noah, a righteous man, holds the keys of a dispensation and stands next to Adam in authority (HC 3:386). Other references to Noah are Isa. 54:9; Ezek. 14:14, 20; Matt. 24:37–38; Luke 3:36; 17:26–27.

The tradition of a great flood is found in nearly every ancient culture. A Babylonian account closely resembles the record in the Bible, but the biblical account differs from all others in its religious value and the purpose of it. The scriptural account teaches that the flood was sent to cleanse the earth because of the wickedness of the people. Noah and his family were saved because they were righteous (Gen. 6:9; Moses 8:27). The authenticity of the Genesis account of the flood is confirmed by latter-day revelation as recorded in Moses 7:34, 42–43; 8:8–30. Cf. Ether 13:2.

Nob. Priestly city in Benjamin, north of Jerusalem, one of the places where the tabernacle stood before the building of the temple (1 Sam. 21:1; 22:9, 11, 19; Neh. 11:32; Isa. 10:32).

Noph. I.e., Memphis; ancient capital of Egypt (Isa. 19:13; Jer. 2:16; 44:1; 46:14, 19; Ezek. 30:13, 16; cf. Hosea 9:6).

Numbers. The book that bears this name is so called from the double numbering or census of the people (chs. 1—4; 26). It contains notices of events in the wilderness, more especially in the second year after the exodus, and at the close of the wandering, interspersed with legislation. (1) 1:1—10:10: preparation for departure from Sinai. (2) 10:11—14:45: march from Sinai to borders of Canaan; the sending of the spies and their report; the refusal to enter Canaan, and God's punishment for disobedience. (3) 15:1—19:22: various laws and historical notices. (4) 20:1—36:13: the history of the last year in the wilderness from the second arrival of the Israelites in Kadesh till they reach "the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho." The book is remarkable for the number of fragments of ancient poetry preserved in it (6:24–26; 10:35–36; 21:14–15, 17–18, 27–30). See also Pentateuch.

Obadiah. Servant of the Lord. (1) The steward of Ahab who protected the prophets of God from Jezebel (1 Kgs. 18). (2) A prophet who foretold the doom of Edom. Nothing is known of his personal history. The prophecy was spoken directly after some capture of Jerusalem (possibly by the Philistines and Arabians during the reign of Jehoram, 848–844 B.C., or more probably by the Chaldeans, 586 B.C.) during which the Edomites had displayed hostility to Judah. (See Edom.) Obadiah foretells their punishment. For the fulfillment of his prophecy see 2 Kgs. 14:7; 2 Chr. 25:11–12. One of the better known passages of Obadiah is 1:21, speaking of "saviours ... on mount Zion," which refers to the doctrine of salvation for the dead.

Obed. Servant. Son of Boaz and Ruth, and father of Jesse (Ruth 4:17, 21–22; 1 Chr. 2:12; Matt. 1:5; Luke 3:32).

Obed-edom. Servant of Edom. A Levite belonging to the family of Kohath; called a Gittite because he belonged to the Levitical city of Gath-rimmon. The Ark was kept at his house for six months (2 Sam. 6:10–12; 1 Chr. 13:13–14). He was made doorkeeper of the Ark in Zion (1 Chr. 15:24–25; 16:5, 38). His family kept the temple storehouse (1 Chr. 26:4, 8, 15; 2 Chr. 25:24).

Occupy. To make use of (Judg. 16:11; Ex 38:24). To do business with (Ex. 27:9; Ezek. 27:16, 19, 21; Luke 19:13).

Og. King of Bashan, and one of the giant race of Rephaim; his bed (? = sarcophagus) (Deut. 3:11); his kingdom conquered by Moses (Num. 21:33; 32:33; Deut. 1:4; 3:1 f.; 4:47; 29:7; 31:4; Josh. 2:10; 9:10; 12:4); given to Manasseh (13:12, 30–31; 1 Kgs. 4:19; Neh. 9:22; Ps. 135:11; 136:20).

Old Testament. See Bible; Canon.

Olive tree. The well-known Olea europea. It is extensively cultivated in Palestine for the sake of the oil. The olive requires being grafted; hence Paul's allusion to the gentiles (Rom. 11:17–24); but what he describes is the reverse of the ordinary gardening operation, and is therefore spoken of as "contrary to nature" (v. 24). Using the olive tree in an allegorical sense to illustrate Israel and the gentiles is also done by Zenos, as quoted by Jacob 5:6. Isaiah uses the illustration of a grape vine for the same purpose (Isa. 5:1–7).

Olives, Mount of, or Olivet. A limestone hill east of Jerusalem, with the Kidron valley lying between. On its western side lay the garden of Gethsemane, and on the east, Bethphage and Bethany. This mount not only was the place of many happenings in biblical times, but shall also be prominent in events of the latter days and the Messiah's second coming (Zech. 14:4–5; D&C 45:48; 133:20).

Omega. The last letter of the Greek alphabet, used to denote Christ, who is the final goal of all creation (Rev. 1:8, 11; 21:6; 22:13; 3 Ne. 9:18; D&C 19:1; 35:1; 38:1; 45:7; 54:1; 61:1; 95:17; 112:34; 132:66). See also Alpha.

Omer. A measure of capacity, being one-tenth of an ephah, i.e., about half a gallon (Ex. 16:22). See Weights and Measures.

Omri. (1) Captain of the host and afterwards king of Israel and founder of a strong dynasty (1 Kgs. 16:16); overcomes his rivals (16:17–23); builds Samaria (16:24); his reign (16:25–28; 2 Kgs. 8:26; 2 Chr. 22:2); statues of (Micah 6:16). (2) Three others (1 Chr. 7:8; 9:4; 27:18).

On. (1) A Reubenite (Num. 16:1). (2) Heliopolis (i.e., city of the sun), in Egypt (Gen. 41:45, 50; 46:20).

Onan. Son of Judah. His sin is referred to in Gen. 38:4, 8–9; 46:12; Num. 26:19; 1 Chr. 2:3.

Onesimus. Profitable. Of Colosse (Col. 4:9); a runaway slave of Philemon, converted by Paul, and sent back to his master with a letter from Paul (Philem. 1:10).

Ophir. Gen. 10:29 = 1 Chr. 1:23. A country whence gold was brought, probably a port of southern Arabia (1 Kgs. 9:28; 10:11; 22:48; 1 Chr. 29:4; 2 Chr. 8:18; 9:10; Job 22:24; 28:16; Ps. 45:9; Isa. 13:12).

Organ. The first wind instrument mentioned in the Bible (Gen. 4:21; Job 21:12; 30:31; Ps. 150:4); probably a form of pipe.

Padan. (Gen. 48:7); elsewhere Padan-aram. Probably plain of Aram. Also called Mesopotamia, the country between the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates; the home of Rebekah (Gen. 25:20) and Rachel (Gen. 28:2, 5–7; see also 31:18; 33:18; 35:9, 26; 46:15).

Palestine. Joel 3:4. The name originally denoted the district bordering the Mediterranean, inhabited by Philistines. The Greeks and Romans used the name to denote the whole of southern Syria (just as in most modern atlases), a district nearly 180 miles long, and about 85 miles in average breadth. Running from north to south is the deep Jordan valley, which at its lowest part near the Dead Sea, is 1290 feet below the level of the Mediterranean. This valley, which extends southward as far as the Gulf of Aqabah, is called the Arabah. On either side of the valley is hill country, the western range being broken by the plain of Esdraelon. Proceeding further west we reach the Shephelah or Low Hills, and then the Maritime Plain, extending the whole length of the seacoast, and including the plains of Philistia and Sharon. Down in the south was the Negeb, called in the KJV the "south country." On the east of Jordan the highest summit is Mount Hermon (9400 feet). Thence going south the ground falls to an average height of about 2000 feet, this tableland being crossed by numerous valleys, and gradually sinking southward and eastward until the desert is reached. When Abraham first settled in Palestine the country was occupied by various Semitic tribes. Some of these remained on the borders of Palestine and for a long time disputed with Israel the possession of the land. The Israelite dominion was largest in the time of David. It shrank in consequence of repeated defeats by the Syrians, Assyrians, and Babylonians. The land was never fully occupied by the Jews after their return from captivity. In the time of our Lord, Judaea was mainly Jewish, but in the rest of Palestine there was a mixture of Jews, Syrians, and Greeks. The coast towns were mainly gentile. Samaria was occupied by people of mixed race who accepted the law of Moses, but who were regarded by Jews with a special hatred. In Galilee the small towns and villages were mainly Jewish, while in the large towns as well as in the district east of Jordan known as Decapolis the people were for the most part gentile.

Parables. (1) Most teachers, especially Oriental teachers, have used some form of parable in their instruction, but none so exclusively as Jesus at one period of his ministry. During part of the Galilean ministry the record states that "without a parable spake he not unto them" (Mark 4:34). From our Lord's words (Matt. 13:13–15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10) we learn the reason for this method. It was to veil the meaning. The parable conveys to the hearer religious truth exactly in proportion to his faith and intelligence; to the dull and uninspired it is a mere story, "seeing they see not," while to the instructed and spiritual it reveals the mysteries or secrets of the kingdom of heaven. Thus it is that the parable exhibits the condition of all true knowledge. Only he who seeks finds.

(2) The word parable is Greek in origin, and means a setting side by side, a comparison. In parables divine truth is presented by comparison with material things. The Hebrew word, mashal, which parable is used to translate, has a wider significance, and is applied to the balanced metrical form in which teaching is conveyed in the poetical books of the Old Testament. See Matt. 13:35.

(3) Interpretation of parables. It is important to distinguish between the interpretation of a parable and the application of a parable. The only true interpretation is the meaning the parable conveyed, or was meant to convey, when first spoken. The application of a parable may vary in every age and circumstance. But if the original meaning is to be grasped, it is important to consider its context and setting. The thought to which it is linked, the connection in which it is placed, the persons to whom it is addressed, all give the clue to the right interpretation. Other rules of interpretation are: (a) Do not force a meaning on subordinate incidents. (b) Do not regard as parallel parables that are connected by superficial likeness of imagery. (c) Bear in mind that the same illustration does not always have the same significance—leaven, e.g., signifies a principle of good as well as a principle of evil. (d) Remember that the comparison in a parable is not complete, does not touch at every point. Thus, the characters of the unjust judge or the unjust steward or the nobleman who went into a far country—possibly referring to the infamous Archelaus—do not concern the interpretation of the parable. The parable draws a picture of life as it is, not as it ought to be, and compares certain points in this picture with heavenly doctrine. (e) Observe the proper proportions of a parable, and do not make the episode more prominent than the main line of teaching.

(4) Classification of parables. The greatest importance should be attached to the grouping of the parables by the writers themselves. In Matthew three main lines of teaching are illustrated by parables: (a) The Church of the future—its planting and growth, internal and external, the enthusiasm for it, the mingling within it of good and evil, the final judgment of it (ch. 13). (b) The Jewish Church and nation, its history, and the causes of its fall (21:18–19, 23—22:14). (c) The ministry of the Church in the parables given on the Mount of Olives, addressed especially to the apostles, on work and watchfulness (25:1–30). The parable of the laborers in the vineyard (19:30—20:16), in answer to a question of the apostles, may be classed under (a).

Mark follows the lines of Matthew in (a) 4:1–34, and (b) 12:1–12; but in each division fewer parables are reported, and in (b) one only. In (a), however, occurs the one parable peculiar to this Gospel.

Luke also omits the parables given on the Mount of Olives (c), but compares 12:35–48, 19:11–28, and illustrates (a) and (b) less copiously than Matthew. His independent reports, however, are numerous. These may be classified generally as illustrating: (1) Prayer and earnestness in religious life (11:5–8; 16:1–13; 18:1–8). (2) Forgiveness and the love of God (7:41–43; 15). (3) Reversal of human judgment, as to just and unjust (10:25–27; 12:16–21; 18:9–14); rich and poor (16:19–31).

John has no true parables, but presents two allegories: the good shepherd (10:1–16), and the vine and the branches (15:1–7).

Parables peculiar to each Gospel:

Matthew. 1. The tares. 2. The hidden treasure. 3. The pearl of great price. 4. The draw-net. 5. The unmerciful servant. 6. The laborers in the vineyard. 7. The two sons. 8. Marriage of the king's son. 9. The ten virgins. 10. The talents.

Mark. The seed growing secretly.

Luke. 1. The two debtors. 2. The good Samaritan. 3. The importuned friend. 4. The rich fool. 5. The barren fig tree. 6. The lost piece of silver. 7. The prodigal son. 8. The unjust steward. 9. Dives and Lazarus. 10. The unjust judge. 11. The Pharisee and the Publican. 12. The ten pieces of money.

The parable of the ten pieces of money (minae) (Luke 19:11–27) is an interesting example of historical groundwork in a parable. (The reference is possibly to the journey of Archelaus to Rome.) But probably in other parables similar historical allusions, now lost, must have added vividness to the narrative. Of these the royal marriage feast, the great supper, and the good Samaritan are possible examples.

Paraclete. The word does not occur in the KJV. It is an English form of the Greek parakletos, a name applied by the Lord (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7) to the Holy Spirit, and which may be translated Comforter, Advocate, or Helper. The same name is applied by John (1 John 2:1) to the Lord himself. Advocate is probably the English word that most nearly represents the meaning of the Greek.

Paradise. A Persian word meaning a garden. It is not found in the O.T. In the N.T. it occurs in Luke 23:43, 2 Cor. 12:4, and Rev. 2:7. See also 2 Ne. 9:13; Alma 40:12, 14; 4 Ne. 1:14; Moro. 10:34; D&C 77:2, 5; cf. A of F 10. Paradise is that part of the spirit world in which the righteous spirits who have departed from this life await the resurrection of the body. It is a condition of happiness and peace. However, the scriptures are not always consistent in the use of the word, especially in the Bible. For example, when Jesus purportedly said to the thief on the cross, "To day shalt thou be with me in paradise" (Luke 23:43), the Bible rendering is incorrect. The statement would more accurately read, "Today shalt thou be with me in the world of spirits" since the thief was not ready for paradise (see HC 5:424–25). Possibly 2 Cor. 12:4 should also not use paradise in the sense of meaning the spirit world, as much as meaning the celestial kingdom. The "paradisiacal glory" of A of F 10 refers to the glorified millennial state of the earth rather than the spirit world.

Paran, Wilderness of. The desert between Judaea and Sinai, forming the central part of the Sinaitic peninsula (Gen. 21:21; Num. 10:12; 12:16; 13:3, 26; Deut. 1:1; 33:2; 1 Sam. 25:1; 1 Kgs. 11:18; Hab. 3:3); called El-paran (Gen. 14:6).

Parousia. A Greek word that is the technical term in the N.T. for the second coming of the Lord in glory to judge the world (see Matt. 24:3, 27, 39; 1 Cor. 15:23; 1 Thes. 2:19; 3:13; 4:15; 5:23; 2 Thes. 2:1, 8; 2 Pet. 1:16; 3:4).

Parthians. In Acts 2:9, this word denotes Jews settled in Parthia, the district south of the Caspian Sea, and extending from India to the Tigris.

Passover. See Feasts.

Pastoral Epistles. The name given to the epistles to Timothy and Titus, because they deal with the pastoral office and the duties of the shepherds or ministers of the Church.

Pathros = Upper Egypt. (Isa. 11:11; Jer. 44:1, 15; Ezek. 29:14; 30:14.)

Patmos. One of the Sporades, the southeastern group of the islands of the Aegean Sea, being the island to which John was banished. There, according to tradition, he worked in the "mines," i.e., marble quarries, and saw the vision related in the Apocalypse (Rev. 1:9).

Patriarch, Patriarchs. A patriarch is called an evangelist in D&C 107:39 ff. As such patriarch is an ordained office in the Melchizedek Priesthood. The fathers from Adam to Jacob were all patriarchs of this kind. The word as used in the Bible seems to denote also a title of honor to early leaders of the Israelites, such as David (Acts 2:29) and the 12 sons of Jacob (Acts 7:8–9). The word is of Greek derivation and means father-ruler; the Hebrew word it translates is simply father.

Paul. The life and work of the great apostle Paul is recorded at considerable length in the Acts and the epistles. It is only possible to indicate here a few of the chief facts. He was known in early life as Saul; his Latin name Paul is first mentioned at the beginning of his gentile ministry (Acts 13:9). He belonged to Tarsus, in Cilicia (Acts 9:11); was a Pharisee and a pupil of Gamaliel (Acts 22:3); was active in the persecution of Christians (Acts 8:3; 26:10; Gal. 1:13; Philip. 3:6); and took part in the martyrdom of Stephen (Acts 7:58; 8:1). He started for Damascus for the purpose of further persecution (Acts 9:1) and on the road saw a vision of the Lord Jesus, which changed the whole current of his life (Acts 9:4–19; 22:7; 26:14; Gal. 1:15–16). After his baptism by Ananias (Acts 9:18), he retired into Arabia (Gal. 1:17), and then returned to Damascus, where he preached (Acts 9:19–25; 2 Cor. 11:32; Gal. 1:17–18). Being compelled to flee, about three years after his conversion he went to Jerusalem, where he stayed 15 days, Barnabas introducing him to Peter and James (Acts 9:26–30; Gal. 1:18–19). Being in danger, he retired to Tarsus (Acts 9:29–30) and there remained six or seven years, preaching in Syria and Cilicia (Gal. 1:21–24). He was then brought by Barnabas to Antioch (Acts 11:26), and after one year paid a visit to Jerusalem (Acts 11:29–30). After two more years' work in Antioch, he started with Barnabas and Mark on his first missionary journey (Acts 13:1—14:26). Then came another visit to Jerusalem with Barnabas to attend a conference with the other apostles (Acts 15:1–33; Gal. 2:1–10), after which they returned to Antioch (Acts 15:35). He then started on his second missionary journey (Acts 15:36—18:22), which lasted about three years, and ended with a visit to Jerusalem. After a short stay in Antioch, Paul began his third journey, which occupied about 3½ years (Acts 18:23—21:15). On his return to Jerusalem he was arrested and sent to Caesarea (Acts 21:17—23:35), where he remained a prisoner for two years (Acts 24:1—26:32), and was then sent for trial to Rome, suffering shipwreck on the way (Acts 27:1—28:10). He remained in Rome two years (Acts 28:30) and was then released. He then appears to have visited Asia, Macedonia, Crete, and perhaps Spain. At the end of about four years he was again taken a prisoner to Rome, and suffered martyrdom, probably in the spring of A.D. 65. For an account of his teaching, see Pauline Epistles.

Pauline Epistles. Paul's 14 epistles found in our present N.T. were written to members of the Church who already had some knowledge of the gospel. They are not evangelistic; rather, they are regulatory in nature. The arrangement is neither chronological, geographical, nor alphabetical, but by length, in descending order form the longest (Romans) to the shortest (Philemon). This is the case except with the epistle to the Hebrews, which was placed last because some have questioned whether or not it was written by Paul. The dating and chronological grouping of the epistles as presented below is approximate, but seems consistent with the known facts.

An advantage in studying the epistles in chronological order is that the reader sees the differences in the types of problems the Church encountered as the years passed and circumstances changed. Early membership was mostly Jewish, and problems included questions about the law of Moses. Later, when the gentile membership had increased, problems involved items of Greek philosophy. Early persecution was from the Jews and the Judaizers. Later persecution came from the Roman government. These things are visible in the epistles not by sharp distinction, but by the gradual shift of emphasis.

Paul's epistles may be divided into four groups:

1. 1 and 2 Thes. A.D. 50, 51

2. 1 and 2 Cor., Gal., Rom. A.D. 55, 57

3. Philip., Col., Eph., Philem., Heb. A.D. 60, 62

4. Titus, 1 and 2 Tim. A.D. 64, 65

THE FIRST GROUP

1 and 2 Thessalonians

Epistles to the Thessalonians were written from Corinth during Paul's first visit to Europe. His work in Thessalonica is described in Acts 17. It was his wish to return, but he was unable to do so (1 Thes. 2:18); he therefore sent Timothy to cheer the converts and bring him word how they fared. The fist epistle is the outcome of his thankfulness on Timothy's return.

Analysis of 1 Thessalonians

1. Personal.

a. Salutation and thanksgiving (1:1–10).

b. Reminder of his work among them, and fresh thanksgiving (2:1–16).

c. His anxiety on their behalf and his reason for sending Timothy (2:17—3:10).

d. A prayer for them (3:11–13).

2. Instruction.

a. Exhortation about spiritual growth, chastity, love, and diligence (4:1–12).

b. Doctrine of the second advent, for the consolation of the bereaved (4:13–18), and for the warning and edification of survivors (5:1–11).

c. Exhortations to laity, clergy, and the whole church (5:12–28).

In the short interval between the two epistles the Church suffered from persecution (2 Thes. 1:4); the prospect of an immediate return of the Lord fostered an unhealthy excitement (2:2), and seemed to countenance improvident idleness (3:6), while Paul's own teaching had been misunderstood (3:17, cf. 2:2).

Analysis of 2 Thessalonians

1. Salutation and thanksgiving (1:1–10).

2. A prayer (1:11–12).

3. Teaching about the second advent; the Lord not to come immediately (2:1–12).

4. Thanksgiving, an appeal to stand firm, and a prayer (2:13–17).

5. Prayer for himself and his converts (3:1–5).

6. Duty of subordination and of work (3:6–16).

7. Conclusion (3:17–18).

THE SECOND GROUP

1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Romans

These epistles were written between A.D. 55 and 56; 1 Cor. toward the end of Paul's three years' stay at Ephesus, 2 Cor. and perhaps Gal. during his journey through Macedonia; and Rom. from Corinth.

Epistles to the Corinthians. Corinth was the meeting point of many nationalities because the main current of the trade between Asia and western Europe passed through its harbors. Paul's first visit lasted nearly two years; his converts were mainly Greeks, men gifted by race with a keen sense of the joys of physical existence, with a passion for freedom and a genius for rhetoric and logic, but reared in the midst of the grossest moral corruption, undisciplined and self-conceited. Some time before 1 Cor. was written he paid them a second visit (2 Cor. 12:14; 13:1) to check some rising disorder (2 Cor. 2:1; 13:2), and wrote them a letter, now lost (1 Cor. 5:9). They had also been visited by Apollos (Acts 18:27), perhaps by Peter (1 Cor. 1:12), and by some Jewish Christians who brought with them letters of commendation from Jerusalem (1 Cor. 1:12; 2 Cor. 3:1; 5:16; 11:23).

Analysis of 1 Corinthians

1. Salutation and thanksgiving (1:1–9).

2. Rebuke of the Corinthian Church for lack of unity (1:10—6:20).

a. The spirit of partisanship and insubordination (1:10—4:21).

b. The case of impurity (5:1–13; 6:9–20).

c. The lawsuits (6:1–9).

3. Paul's reply to inquiries made by them as to

a. Marriage (7:1–40).

b. Meat offered to idols (8:1—11:1).

c. The order of worship, with special reference to the Lord's Supper and the use of spiritual gifts (11:2—14:40). This section contains (12:31—13:13) a magnificent description of love, the greatest in the trio of things that abide forever.

4. Doctrine of the resurrection—

a. Of Christ (15:1–19).

b. Of the dead (15:20–34).

c. Degrees of glory (15:35–58).

5. Directions about a collection for the Christian poor at Jerusalem; information about Paul's, Timothy's, and Apollos's plans; final exhortations and salutation (16:1–24).

Soon after writing the first epistle Paul was driven from Ephesus by a riot (Acts 19). In Macedonia he met Titus (2 Cor. 7:6), who brought him news from Corinth that his letter had been well received and had produced the desired effect; the Church had cleared itself of all complicity in a sexual offense and had excommunicated the offender (2:5–11). But Paul found that a personal coolness had sprung up between himself and his converts (7:2; 12:15), which unscrupulous opponents were turning to their own account.

Analysis of 2 Corinthians

1. Salutation and thanksgiving (1:1–11).

2. Personal, arising out of the report of Titus.

a. His own movements and feelings toward the Corinthian Church (1:12—2:17).

b. The characteristics of the Christian ministry as exemplified by true apostles (3:1—6:10).

c. An account of the impression produced on his own mind by the report of Titus (6:11—7:16).

3. Welfare collection for the churches of Judaea (8:1—9:15).

4. Assertion of his own position as an apostle (10:1—12:10).

5. Conclusion (12:11—13:14).

Epistle to the Galatians. There is some uncertainty as to what churches were addressed in this epistle. They were either in northern Galatia, the district of which Ancyra was capital, or in the district on the borders of Phrygia and Galatia that was visited by Paul on his first missionary journey. In either case the Galatian churches were certainly visited by Paul on his second (Acts 16:6) and third (Acts 18:23) journeys. (See Galatia.) The epistle was written by him (probably while traveling through Macedonia) at the news of a wholesale defection from the truth of the gospel in favor of a return to the bondage of the Jewish law. In the epistle he vindicates his own position as an apostle, enunciates the doctrine of righteousness by faith, and affirms the value of spiritual religion as opposed to a religion of externals.

Analysis of Galatians

1. Salutation and expression of regret at the news he had received (1:1–10).

2. Personal: a vindication of his own position as an apostle; his relationship with other apostles (1:11—2:21).

3. Theological: showing the superiority of the doctrine of faith to the doctrine of merit by works (3:1—4:31).

a. Appeal to their own experience of the Christian life (3:1–6).

b. The faith of Abraham; faith in Jesus Christ enables believers to become Abraham's seed (3:1–29).

c. The purpose of the law and its preparatory function (4:1–11).

d. A personal appeal (4:12–20).

e. Allegory of Isaac and Ishmael (4:21–31).

4. Practical results of the doctrine of faith (5:1—6:10).

a. A return of Judaism a denial of Christian liberty (5:1–12).

b. Liberty did not mean freedom from moral restraint (5:13–26).

c. Duty of sympathy and liberality (6:1–10).

5. Autograph postscript (6:11–18).

Epistle to the Romans, written from Corinth toward the end of the stay recorded in Acts 20:3. Paul was then contemplating a visit to Jerusalem, which was certain to be dangerous (Rom. 15:31). If he escaped with his life he hoped afterwards to visit Rome. The letter was meant in part to prepare the Church there to receive him when he came. It may also be regarded as containing a statement of those doctrines which had been in dispute with the Judaizing Christians, and which Paul now regarded as finally established.

Analysis of Romans

1. Salutation and thanksgiving (1:1–15).

2. Doctrinal (1:16—11:36).

a. His main thesis, the doctrine of righteousness by faith (1:16–17).

b. Such a doctrine met a crying need of the whole world, for God's wrath against sin was only too evident, and this included both Jew and gentile (1:18—2:29).

c. The Jew's position of privilege (3:1–8; see also ch. 9).

d. Jew and gentile shown from scripture to be alike under sin (3:9–20).

e. Righteousness by faith now made possible and all boasting excluded (3:21–31).

f. Illustration of the doctrine from the case of Abraham (4:1–25).

g. Joy through the Lord Jesus (5:1–11).

h. The first and the second Adam (5:12–19).

i. The moral consequences of our deliverance, namely, union with Christ, release from sin, and life in the Spirit (5:20—8:39).

j. Israel's rejection, the reason for it (9:1—10:21), yet not final (11:1–36).

3. Practical exhortations.

a. The duty of holiness of life and the law of love (12:1—13:14).

b. The treatment of weaker brethren (14:1—15:13).

4. Personal.

a. His reasons for writing (15:14–33).

b. Greetings (16:1–23).

c. Benediction and doxology (16:24–27).

Characteristics of the Second Group. These four epistles illustrate a new stage in the apostolic teaching. A great controversy had arisen as to the necessity of obedience to the Mosaic law. Although the matter had been settled theologically at the Jerusalem conference in about A.D. 50 (Acts 15; Gal. 2:1–10), it took a long time to settle the matter culturally in the lives of many Church members. Many still looked upon the Church as a subdivision or an outgrowth of Judaism, and they saw no need to discontinue the ordinances of the law of Moses when they became members of the Christian Church. To them Christianity was something new, while the law was undoubtedly of divine appointment, and approved by the example of generations of faithful Israelites. In the controversy Paul took a leading part, and in these four epistles he points men to the cross of Christ as the only source of eternal life (cf. Mosiah 12:27—16:15). The epistles to the Romans and Galatians were the inspired writings most appealed to by the Reformation of the 16th century because they emphasize the spirit over legal formalism.

THE THIRD GROUP

Philippians, Colossians, Ephesians, Philemon, Hebrews

These are separated from the previous group by an interval of four or five years, spent by Paul almost entirely in captivity. They were all written from Rome.

Epistle to the Philippians. The church at Philippi was the earliest founded by Paul in Europe (Acts 16:11–40). His first visit ended abruptly, but he was not forgotten, and his converts sent him supplies not only while he remained in the neighborhood, but also after he had moved on to Corinth (Philip. 4:15–16). He passed through Philippi six years later (Acts 20:2) on his way from Ephesus to Corinth, and again on his return (Acts 20:6) from Corinth to Jerusalem. When the news of his removal to Rome reached the Philippians, they sent one of their number, Epaphroditus (2:25), to minister to him in their name. The strain of work in the capital proved too severe, and Epaphroditus had to be invalided home (2:26–30), taking with him the epistle to the Philippians. Its main purpose is to express Paul's gratitude and affection, and to cheer them under the disappointment of his protracted imprisonment.

Analysis of Philippians

1. Salutation, thanksgiving, and prayer on their behalf (1:1–11).

2. Personal: dealing with the progress of the missionary work (1:12–26).

3. Exhortation to unity, humility, and perseverance (2:1–18).

4. Paul's own plans, and those of Timothy and Epaphroditus (2:19–30).

5. Warning against false teachers (3:1—4:9).

6. Thanks for their assistance, and conclusion (4:10–23).

Epistle to the Colossians was the result of a visit from Epaphras, the evangelist of the Church in Colosse (1:7–8), who reported that the Colossians were falling into serious error, the result of a deep consciousness of sin leading to a desire to attain moral perfection by mechanical means, the careful observance of external ordinances (2:16) and ascetic restrictions (2:20), coupled with special devotion to a host of angelic mediators. The attractiveness of such teaching was due not only to the satisfaction it offered to the craving after sanctification, but also to the show it made of superior wisdom and greater insight into the mysteries of the universe. Paul shows that Christ, in his own person, is the one principle of the unity of the universe, and that sanctification is to be found only through union with him.

Analysis of Colossians

1. Salutation, thanksgiving, and prayer (1:1–13).

2. Doctrinal.

a. Christ, our Redeemer, the author and goal of all creation, the Lord of all divine perfection, in whom is the reconciliation of the universe (1:14—2:5).

b. Hence the importance of union with him (2:6–12).

c. Danger of ceremonialism and of angel worship (2:13–19).

d. Importance of dying and rising again with Christ (2:20—3:4).

3. Exhortation.

a. Every evil inclination to be subdued (3:5–11).

b. We must clothe ourselves in all graces of the Spirit (3:12–17).

c. Social duties to be observed (3:18—4:6).

4. Personal: commendations and greetings (4:7–18).

Epistle to the Ephesians was carried by the same messenger who bore the Colossians' letter. The epistle is of great importance, for it contains Paul's teaching regarding the Church of Christ.

Analysis of Ephesians

1. Salutation (1:1–2).

2. Doctrinal: The Church of Christ.

a. Thanksgiving for blessings bestowed in Christ (1:3–14), and prayer for the further enlightenment of his converts (1:15—2:10).

b. The change in their state: once aliens, now fellow-citizens of the saints, gentile and Jew henceforth united in one Church (2:11–22), a mystery now revealed (3:1–12).

c. Prayer and thanksgiving (3:13–21).

3. Practical exhortation.

a. Necessity of unity (4:1–6), each developing his own gift for the good of the whole; role of apostles and prophets in the Church (4:7–16).

b. The new man (4:17—5:21).

c. Teaching about marriage, children, and servants (5:22—6:9).

d. The Christian armor (6:10–20).

4. Reference to Tychicus (6:21–22); blessing (6:23–24).

Epistle to Philemon is a private letter about Onesimus, a slave who had robbed his master, Philemon, and run away to Rome. Paul sent him back to his master at Colosse in company with Tychicus the bearer of the epistle to the Colossians. Paul asks that Onesimus be forgiven and received back as a fellow Christian.

Epistle to the Hebrews was written to Jewish members of the Church to persuade them that significant aspects of the law of Moses, as a forerunner, had been fulfilled in Christ, and that the higher gospel law of Christ had replaced it. When Paul returned to Jerusalem at the end of his third mission (about A.D. 60), he found that many thousands of Jewish members of the Church were still "zealous of the law" of Moses (Acts 21:20). This was at least ten years after the conference at Jerusalem had determined that certain ordinances of the law of Moses were not necessary for the salvation of gentile Christians, but had not settled the matter for Jewish Christians. It appears that soon thereafter, Paul wrote the epistle to the Hebrews to show them by their own scripture and by sound reason why they should no longer practice the law of Moses. The epistle is built on a carefully worked-out plan. Some have felt that the literary style is different from that of Paul's other letters. However, the ideas are certainly Paul's.

Analysis of Hebrews

1. God has spoken to our fathers for centuries by means of prophets, but in our time he has sent his son Jesus, who is the heir and the Creator, and the exact image of the Father (Heb. 1:1–3).

2. Superiority of Jesus.

a. Jesus is greater than the angels. He has a more excellent name, inheritance, and higher calling. They are servants; he is the Son (1:4—2:18).

b. If the word of angels is important, how much "more earnest heed" we ought to give to the things spoken by the Lord (Jesus) (2:1–4).

3. Jesus is greater than Moses. Moses was a faithful servant, but Jesus was a faithful son (3:1–6).

4. The superiority of Jesus' word.

a. The Israelites while travelling through the wilderness could not enter into the promised land because they did not believe and obey the teachings of God received through Moses (3:7–19).

b. How much more important it is, therefore, to obey the words of Jesus who is greater than Moses, if we wish to enter the heavenly land (4:1–2).

5. Jesus, as a high priest of Melchizedek, is superior to the high priests of the law of Moses.

a. Jesus was of the order of Melchizedek, which is greater than the order of Aaron. Melchizedek was even greater than Abraham (7:1–12).

b. The law of the Melchizedek Priesthood (gospel) is greater than the law of the Aaronic Priesthood (law of Moses) (5:1—7:28).

6. The tabernacle service was symbolic (or a shadow) or the real events.

a. The high priest under the law went through the veil into the Holy of Holies; but Jesus, the great high priest, has gone into heaven itself (6:19–20; 9:1–14).

b. The traveling of Israel out of Egypt, through the wilderness, crossing over the Jordan River into the promised land, is similar to a man forsaking the worldly things, going through the wilderness of temptation, and finally passing through the veil of death into the celestial kingdom (cf. Alma 37:38–45; D&C 84:21–24).

7. The first covenant (testament) under Moses was fulfilled, and Jesus brought a new covenant (testament); thus we have in the Bible the Old and New Testaments (8:6—9:28). That which is therefore fulfilled and is old "is ready to vanish away" (Hebrews 8:13).

8. Exhortation to faithfulness and diligence (10:1–39).

9. A discourse on faith (11:1–40).

10. Admonitions and greetings (12:1—13:25).

Characteristics of the Third Group. The characteristic doctrine of this third group is the ascension and present sovereignty of Jesus Christ over the world and the Church. Problems of thought and of action pressed for solution. The gospel is shown to be the guide to a true philosophy, as well as to possess the power to produce right conduct and to satisfy the social as well as the individual needs of men.

THE FOURTH GROUP

Titus, 1 and 2 Timothy

These epistles, known as the pastoral epistles, deal mainly with questions relating to the internal discipline and organization of the Christian body and with the ideal of the pastoral office. We learn from them that Paul was set free from his first imprisonment in Rome, and revisited his old friends in Greece and Asia Minor. During this interval of freedom 1 Tim. and the epistle to Titus were written.

1 Timothy (see also Timothy).

In the course of his travels after his first imprisonment Paul came to Ephesus, where he left Timothy to check the growth of certain unprofitable forms of speculation, intending (3:14) afterwards to return. As a delay might occur, he writes to him, perhaps from Macedonia (1:3), to give him counsel and encouragement in the fulfillment of his duty.

Analysis of 1 Timothy

1. Salutation (1:1–2).

2. Foolish speculations and legalism to be kept in check as dangerous to the simplicity of the gospel (1:3–20).

3. Directions about public worship, and about the character and conduct of ministers (2:1—3:13).

4. Summary of the true believer's creed (3:14–16).

5. Warning against foolish asceticism (4:1–16).

6. Hints to Timothy about the treatment of his flock (5:1—6:2).

7. Warnings against various dangers (6:3–19).

8. Conclusion (6:20–21).

Epistle to Titus (see also Titus).

Analysis of Titus

1. Salutation (1:1–4).

2. Qualifications of an elder (1:5–9).

3. Discipline in the Cretan Church (1:10–16).

4. Proper treatment of various classes of Christians (2:1–15).

5. General exhortation (3:1–11).

6. Personal messages (3:12–15).

2 Timothy was written during Paul's second imprisonment, shortly before his martyrdom. It contains the apostle's last words, and shows the wonderful courage and trust with which he faced death.

Analysis of 2 Timothy

1. Salutation (1:1–2).

2. Charge to Timothy (1:3–14).

3. The desertion by old friends, and the faithfulness of others (1:15–18).

4. Various warnings and directions (2:1–26).

5. Dangers ahead and how to meet them (3:1—4:5).

6. Paul's confidence in the face of death (4:6–8).